Ongoing Diphtheria Crisis affects eight African countries.

Between 1 January and 2 November 2025, 20 412 cases of suspected Diphtheria were recorded across the African continent, with 1252 people believed to have died from the disease (a case fatality ratio of 6%) according to a press release issued by the World Health Organization on 21 November 2025. Eight countries have recorded ongoing epidemics of Diphtheria, Algeria, Chad, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, and South Africa. Epidemics in some places have been ongoing since 2023, with the disease continuing to spread to new areas. 

In many areas, laboratory confirmation of cases remain the exception rather than the rule, due to a shortage of suitable testing facilities, as well as a shortage of diagnostic equipment. There is also currently a global shortage of Diphtheria Antitoxin, the most effective treatment for the disease, as well as a shortage of suitable facilities for administering the treatment in many areas. Many of the countries affected have extremely fragile healthcare systems, combined with large numbers of displaced persons and in many cases ongoing civil conflicts, leading to a strong possibility of the disease spreading further within the region. This has led the World Health Orgnization to categorise the crisis as a Grade 2 Emergency under the terms of the Emergency Response Framework.

Diphtheria is a highly contagious vaccine-preventable disease caused mainly by the Actinomycete Bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheria but also by the related Corynebacterium ulcerans. It spreads between people mainly by direct contact or through the air via respiratory droplets. The disease can affect all age groups; however, unimmunized children are most at risk.

Symptoms often come on gradually, beginning with a sore throat and fever. In severe cases, the Bacteria produce a poison (toxin) that causes a thick grey or white patch at the back of throat. This can block the airways, making it hard to breathe or swallow, and also creates a barking cough. The neck may swell in part due to enlarged lymph nodes.

Treatment involves administering Diphtheria antitoxin as well as antibiotics. Vaccination against Diphtheria has been effective in reducing the mortality and morbidity from Diphtheria dramatically. Diphtheria is fatal in 5-10% of cases, with a higher mortality rate in young children. However, in settings with poor access to Diphtheria antitoxin, the case fatality ratio can be as high as 40%.

Niger is suffering an ongoing Diphtheria epidemic which began in the Zinder Region in November 2022, and which has subsequently spread to the Adadez and Diffa regions, with 34 of the country's 72 districts reporting cases. In 2025, there have been 1926 suspected cases, with 122 deaths (a case fatality ratio of 6.3%), with 765 cases confirmed by laboratory testing. Attempts to combat the outbreak have been hampered by a severe humanitarian crisis, driven by civil conflict, climatic effects, economic breakdown, and a large number of displaced persons, with around 2.6 million people currently reliant upon humanitarian assistance. A vaccination program was initiated in September 2025, with uptake reported to be good, and a second round is being planned.

A woman receives a dose of Diphtheria vaccine in Niger. World Health Organization.

Nigeria has been suffering an ongoing Diphtheria epidemic since December 2022, and has the highest number of cases in Africa. In 2025 till November 2, a total of 12 150 cases were reported (8587 of which have been confirmed by laboratory testing), with 884 deaths (a case fatality ratio of 7.2%). Diphtheria has been reported this year from 240 local government areas in 30 of Nigeria's 36 states. This outbreak is disproportionately affecting children and adolescents, and is being exasperated by a low vaccine take-up rate, with around 71% of the population having received a first dose of vaccine and about 67% having received all three recommended doses. Nigeria is suffering from a shortage of vaccines, a limited ability to carry out laboratory testing, a poor public understanding of Diphtheria, and weak infection control practices.  

A Diphtheria outbreak has been ongoing in Chad since mid 2024, with 4462 cases and 47 deaths reported in 2025 to 2 November, a case fatality ratio of 1.1%. Most of the cases have been among children aged 3-13 years. Chad is currently at the centre of a humanitarian crisis triggered by conflicts in multiple neighbouring countries, as well as political instability within its own borders. It is currently home to 1.4 million refugees, including 870 000 from Sudan, as well as about 300 000 internally displaced people. This makes it hard to assess the vaccination status of much of the population in areas where the outbreak is ongoing.

A patient receiving treatment for Diphtheria at a hospital in Chad. Seigneur Yves Wilikoesse/Medecins Sans Frontieres.

Mali is suffering an ongoing Diphtheria epidemic, which began in the northern part of the country in September 2024, with 430 suspected cases and 29 deaths (a case fatality ratio of 6.7%) in 2025 till 2 November. The epidemic spread significantly during 2025, reaching seven of the country's eleven regions and 30 of 75 districts, including the capital city, Bamako. Mali is currently suffering a complex humanitarian crisis, driven by civil conflict and climate-related disruptions, with 6.4 million people currently reliant on humanitarian assistance. Vaccine uptake is low, with 91% of the population having received a first dose, and only 82% all three recommended doses. The country also has a shortage of Diphtheria Antitoxin, as well as a healthcare system which has been severely overstretched by the multiple crises in the country.

Mauritania is suffering a Diphtheria outbreak which began in September 2024, and has spread to 11 of the country's 53 departments, with 849 suspected cases and 33 deaths (a case fatality ratio of 4%). Mauritania has a fairly high vaccination rate for Diphtheria, with 95% of the population having received a first dose of the vaccine, and 86% having received all three doses, but it is also currently home to a population of 118 000 Malian refugees, with vaccine records only available for about 10% of this population. The epidemic also coincides with an outbreak of Rift Valley Fever in the same areas. Efforts to combat these outbreaks has been hampered by poor funding, logistical problems, and a shortage of skilled healthcare workers.

A child receiving treatment for Diphtheria at the Mbaerra Refugee Camp in Mauritania. World Health Organization.

A Diphtheria outbreak began in Guinea in June 2025, with 476 suspected cases and 123 deaths (a case fatality ratio of 25.8%, currently the highest of any affected country). Four of the country's 38 prefectures have been affected, although the outbreak is centred on the gold mining areas of Kankan, particularly in Siguiri District. Only 70 cases have been laboratory confirmed, largely due to a lack of facilities. Guinea also has a low vaccine uptake, with only 77% of the country having had a first vaccine dose, and 63% having received all three recommended doses. The country also has a chronic shortage of Diphtheria Antitoxin, as well as few facilities for treating patients.

Algeria is generally considered to be Diphtheria-free, with a high vaccination rate (98% of the population having received at least one vaccine dose, and 92% having received the recommended three doses). However, in recent years the southern part of the country has become host to a large number of displaced people, fleeing conflict zones in the Sahel Region. In 2024 this area suffered a Diphtheria outbreak in which over 900 people were infected and 119 people died (a case fatality ratio of 13%). A new outbreak was reported in southern Algeria in October 2025, with 13 people infected and two deaths. 

Uniquely among affected countries, the Diphtheria epidemic in South Africa is unrelated to the ongoing crisis in the Sahel Region. The country has a long history of sporadic outbreaks, although these are usually small and quickly contained. The current outbreak, however, first appeared in Western Cape in October 2023, and quickly spread to KwaZulu-Natal, since when it has proven hard to contain. In 2025 till November 2, a total of 106 cases of Diphtheria have been reported in South Africa, all of them laboratory confirmed - a total which includes 37 asymptomatic carriers. The epidemic is still centred on Western Cape, but cases have also been reported in Limpopo, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, and Mpumalanga. Vaccination cover remains low in South Africa, with 76% of the population having received a first dose and 74% all three doses, and this is believed to be worsening. South Africa is also affected by the global shortage of Diphtheria Antitoxin, as well as a health service stretched by multiple other issues.

Geographical distribution of Diphtheria outbreaks in Africa, January 2025 until 2 November 2025. World Health Organization.

Diphtheria is a recurrent problem in many areas of Africa, with 18 789 cases reported between 2020 and 2022. However, this has become much worse since 2023, with 57 000 cases and about 2000 fatalities reported in 2023 and 2024, across  Algeria, Chad, Gabon, Guinea, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria and South Africa, with Guinea, Niger, and Nigeria being the worst affected. The disease particularly infects children under 15, and females more than males. About 50% of those infected in 2020-24 are thought to have been unvaccinated. 

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Reassessing the contribution of the Deccan Traps volcanism to the End Cretaceous Extinction.

During the Phanerozoic Eon the Earth has suffered a series of major extinction events almost all of which are considered to have been triggered by continental flood basalt emplacement episodes, which released vast amounts of toxic gasses into the atmosphere. The exception to this is the End Cretaceous Extinction, which is largely considered to have been triggered by the impact of an extra-terrestrial object into what is now the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico. 

While this is a compelling story, it has faced a number of challenges from rival theories, the most notable of which is that there was a significant outpouring of flood basalts at the End of the Cretaceous, leading to the emplacement of the Deccan Traps Igneous Province in India, This, combined with the fact that we have now identified a number of other large impacts in the Phanerozoic rock record, none of which seem to have been associated with extinction events, presents a serious challenge to the Chicxulub Impact Theory. However, studies of the Deccan Traps Igneous Province have suggested that the majority of the basalt-emplacement happened slightly after the extinction event, implying that it cannot have been the cause. 

In a paper published in the journal GSA Bulletin on 5 November 2025, Vivek Kale of the Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management, Devdutt Upasani and Madhu Rajput of the Department of Geology at Fergusson College, Gauri Dole of the Department of Environmental Science at Savitribai Phule Pune University, and Shilpa Patil Pillai of the Department of Earth and Climate Science at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune, present a re-evaluation of the contribution of the Deccan Traps volcanism to the End Cretaceous Extinction, based upon new geochronological studies of the Deccan Traps Igneous Province.

The Deccan Traps Igneous Province covers about 50 000 km² of Western and Central India, and extends westward beneath the Arabian Sea, where it is thought to cover a further area of about 38 000 km². It was produced by shield-volcano-like eruptions, which produced a series of radially overstepping basalt formations. Studies carried out in the 1980s suggested that the onset of the Deccan Traps volcanism coincided with the End Cretaceous Extinction Event, leading the majority of the geological community to conclude that it could not be responsible for the event, and even some suggestions that the volcanism might have been caused in some way by the Chicxulub Impact.

Geographic sectors of the present-day exposures of Deccan volcanic deposits of central and western India (shaded green) on the backdrop of different cratonic blocks (in shades of pink and named in red) of the Indian Peninsular Shield. The named alignments of deep-crustal tectonic zones from this shield, with Precambrian heritage and late Mesozoic to Cenozoic reactivation are depicted with parallel hatching in their respective strike directions.  Locations of sampled offshore basaltic flows with affinities to the Reunion hotspot are shown with green dots in the offshore areas, along with key ocean floor features of the Arabian Sea off the western coast of India. The locations of Late Cretaceous magmatic activity in the Indian Peninsula (early magmatics) are shown as red stars. The maximum projected extent of the Deccan continental flood basalt is shown with a green dotted line. Kale et al. (2025).

However, much of this earlier work was based upon chemostratigraphic correlation between different parts of the Deccan Traps, something which is now considered unreliable as it has been demonstrated that the Traps are in fact made up of a series of subprovinces, the Western, Satpura, Central, Malwa, Mandla, and Saurashtra, each with their own distinct volcanic history. Thus the work carried out in the 1980s appears to have been valid for parts of the Western Subprovince, but not necessarily for any of the other subprovinces.

Kale et al. combined chemostratigraphic methods with palaeomagnetism and studies of key fossils from sedimentary beds interspaced with the volcanic layers, with the aim of understanding the timing and eruptive history of each subprovince of the Deccan Traps. To achieve a high level of confidence, they carried out extensive fieldwork, preparing more than eighty stratigraphic logs. 

Subprovinces of the Deccan Volcanic Province of India (in different shades of green) and the indicative locations of geochronological sections and fossil-bearing intertrappean sediments used in the age assignments of different stratigraphic units in this study. Abbreviation: KPgB, Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Kale et al. (2025).

Kale et al. recognised three phases of volcanic activity within the Deccan Traps deposits, phases which were consistently recovered using chemostratigraphic and palaeomagnetic methods. These were the Early Magmatic Phase, the Main Flood Basalt Eruptions, and the Late Volcanic Phase. Deposits associated with the Early Magmatic Phase outcrops in the Saurashtra Subprovince, along the Narmada Son Lineament Zone between the Bastar and Dharwar cratons, and comprises mixed mantle-derived volcanic sediments more than 67.0 million years old. The Late Volcanic Phase comprises intrusive volcanic material inserted into the main deposits after they had been emplaced. These outcrop in a small coastal strip around Mumbai, and have also been found offshore in the Laxmi Basin of the Arabian Sea. This Late Volcanic Phase material is about 63.0 million years old, making them coeval with the separation of the Seychelles from the Western Margin of the Indian Plate. There may also be some material associated with the Late Volcanic Phase at the top of the Amarkantak Group.

The Main phase therefore accounts for about 90% of the material which makes up the Deccan Traps Igneous Province. Furthermore, most of this material appears to have been produced within a period of less than 1 million years within Chron C29r, a period between two reversals of the Earth's magnetic field, which lasted from about 66.43 million years ago to about 65.8 million years ago (therefore spanning the current accepted boundary between the Cretaceous and the Tertiary, at 66.04 million years ago), and the following Chron C29n, which lasted from about 65.8 million years ago to about 64.745 million years ago.

The Western Subprovince hosts the thickest and (probably the) most continuous deposits of the Deccan Traps, as well as the largest single outcrop, at Kalsubai Peak, where a 1642 m continuous stack of basalts is exposed, and continues some way beneath the ground. These deposits are assigned to the Sahyadri Group, which is divided into the Wai, Lonavala and Kalsubai subgroups, with about 3000 m depth of basalt produced within chrons C29r and C29n. These deposits show few fossiliferous sedimentary layers, with scattered 'interflow horizons' (horizons marking time-gaps between episodes of basalt-deposition) of limited lateral extent, suggesting that gaps between eruptive episodes were localised and brief.

Kale et al.'s revised study places the boundary between chrons C29r and C29n at the base of the Mahabaleshwar Formation from the Wai Subgroup of the Sahyadri Group. This is marked by the widespread presence of giant-phenocryst basalt. The Purandargarh Formation, which underlies the Mahabaleshwar Formation, is calculated to date from the earliest part of the Danian Stage of the Palaeocene, i.e. immediately after the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. 

The Poladpur Lavas, which underlie the Purandargarh Formation, have been suggested to be of latest Cretaceous origin, on the basis of dates obtained from zircons, but Kale et al. reject this, on the basis that zircons can survive at very high temperatures and are often reworked within volcanic deposits, and also classify the Poladpur Lavas as earliest Danian. Based upon a sediment layer with key Mammalian fossils exposed at Naskal in Telangana State, Kale et al. estimate that the lowest 50 m of the Poladpur Lavas were erupted within 100 000 years of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. The underlying Lonavala and Kalsubai subgroups, therefore, must have erupted entirely within the Latest Cretaceous. 

The Satpura Subprovince forms the second deepest sequence of the Deccan Traps, and has been divided into six formations, with two of these formations containing giant-phenocryst basalts, something which has led to the correlation of the entire subprovince with the Wei Subgroup of the Sahyadri Group. Kale et al. reject this analysis, assigning the entire sequence to the Maastrichtian (Latest Cretaceous) on the basis of fossil inclusions within sedimentary layers.

The Central Subprovince forms the northeastern part of the Deccan Plateau, with a diffuse boundary with the Western subprovince. The lavas of this the Mahur Formation, which form the base of this sequence, also contain a distinctive giant-phenocryst basalt layer, which had led to them being comparied to the Wei Subgroup, but Kale et al. again reject this, assigning this formation to the Maastrichtian on the basis of fossil inclusions. Instead, they place the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary at the top of the Ajanta Formation, which overlies the Mahur Formation, on the basis of palynological evidence (fossil pollen). This places the final three formations of the Central Subprovince, the Chikhil, the Buldhana, and the Karanja, within the Early Danian.

The Malwa Subprovince sequence has also previously been assigned to the Wei Subgroup, although in this case because it contains a normal-reverse-normal palaeomagnetic sequence, which was thought to mark the Danian chrons C29r and C29n. However, a revised dating sequence suggests that this sequence contains some of the oldest rocks of the Deccan Traps, with only the final, Singachori Formation being Danian in age, while all the lower formations are Maastrichtian, based upon fossil evidence. 

The Mandla Subprovince has proven much harder to establish a chronological sequence for, but appears to contain both some of the oldest and some of the youngest lavas of the Deccan Traps. However, the lowermost Mandla Formation and unclassified underlying beds contain sedimentary layers which produce fossils of Maastrichtian age, while the higher beds of the Multai, Amarwara, Khamla/Khampla, and Kuleru formations contain magnetic reversals and fossils of Palaeocene origin.

Stratigraphic logs of the subprovinces of Deccan Volcanic Province of India depicting dominant morphological types with the approximate position of the 66.05 million-year-old Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary (red dashed line). In the Sahyadri Group, the cumulative stratigraphic thickness is used, as there is a well-demonstrated southward and southeastward overstepping of the older formations by younger ones. All other logs are plotted for maximum thickness. The available palaeomagnetic orientations (dark, normal; grey, mixed; and white, reverse) are depicted. Abbreviations: BMBY, Bombay Subgroup; LNVL, Lonavala Subgroup; GPB, giant phenocryst basalt. Kale et al. (2025).

The Saurashtra Subprovince is the only part of the Deccan Traps where an iridium layer has been discovered within the Anjur Section, and used as an identifier for the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. However, the deposits which host this layer have been shown to belong to Magnetochron C28r, making them too young to be related to the End of the Cretaceous. Other deposits, from layers beneath those exposed at Anjur, have produced Dinosaur bones and nests, as well as other clearly Cretaceous fossils, indicating a Maastrichtian origin. These deposits are also cut through by a series of dykes which have yielded ages of between 66.06 and 62.4 million years. Given the lack of a clear chronological sequence for this group, Kale et al. do not attempt to calculate its full sequence, but for the sake of modelling assume that it contains 5% of the total volume of the Deccan Traps lavas, and that this can be divided equally between the Danian and the Maastrichtian.

Kale et al. also assume that 75% of the Deccan Traps basalts were erupted on land, with about 25% offshore. This gives a total volume of about 1.8 million km² of erupted lava (higher than any previous estimate) with the terrestrial deposits produced during the Maastrichtian and the Danian, while the offshore deposits are assumed to be entirely Danian in origin.

While Kale et al. produce a higher total volume estimate for the Deccan Traps Volcanism than previous studies, this is not a major increase, with most previous estimates being of a similar order of magnitude. However, by separating the Deccan Traps into a number of subprovinces and studying those individually, they do significantly re-estimate the amount of volcanism that occurred before the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary.

Kale et al. estimate that early magmatism associated with the Deccan Traps were widely spaced across India in the Late Cretaceous, and probably associated with the Reunion Hotspot passing under part of the Indian Plate. Cainozoic Late Phase Magmatism occurred largely on the spreading western edge of the Indian Plate, and the associated shallow submarine shelf, with much of the material produced probably being better viewed as ocean/island basalt rather than continental flood basalt.

Between these two events, the Main Flood Basalt Eruptions produced about 1.2 million cubic kilometres of continental flood basalt (i.e. about 70% of the total volume of the Deccan Traps) within the last 300 000 years of the Cretaceous. This equates to an eruption rate of about 1000 km³ per year of basalt being produced during the Cretaceous portion of Chron C29r, falling to about 300 km³ per year during the Palaeocene portion of the chron. 

The lethal impacts of flood basalts themselves are rather limited, with most Animals able to out-walk all but the fastest lava flows. Ash clouds associated with such eruptions are more dangerous, potentially smothering plant life far from the source. However, the real threat comes from the gasses such events produce, with large volumes of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, gaseous sulphur, chlorine, fluorine, mercury, and other potent toxins into the atmosphere. 

Kale et al. estimate that the Main Flood Basalt Eruptions of the Deccan Traps would have produced over 6000 gigatonnes of carbon emissions, less than that produced by the Siberian Traps Basalts (associated with the End Permian Extinction) or the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (associated with the End Triassic Extinction). However, around 4200 gigatonnes of this would have been produced within the last 300 000 years of the Maastrichtian (i.e. immediately before the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary) with the remaining 1800 gigatonnes released over a longer period of time.

Fuethermore, Kale et al. conservatively estimate that 1300 gigatonnes of sulphur was released into the atmosphere during the Maastrichtian portion of Chron C29r, with about 200 gigatonnes being released during the Danian portion. 

High mercury levels have been observed around the world towards the end of the Maastrichtian, something which has previously been linked to the onset of the Deccan Traps Volcanism, although why mercury should peak at this point was unclear. Kale et al.'s results suggest that this spike did in fact coincide with the main phase of Deccan Traps volcanism, although they do not attempt to calculate the volumes of mercury produced. Estimates of the volumes of chlorine and fluorine produced by the eruptions were also beyond the scope of the study, although these are also likely to have been substantial.

Emissions of carbon dioxide from volcanic sources are typically enriched in the isotope carbon¹³ compared to other sources, something which is often used to track volcanic activity in the sediment record. Kale et al. examined the ratios of carbon¹³ in terminal Cretaceous sequences from the South Atlantic, North Atlantic, and Spain (areas which would have been far from India at the time), and found a significant spike in carbon¹³ levels immediately before the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, something they do not believe is coincidental. They also not fluctuations in other isotopic proxies which begin 600 000-800 000 years before the boundary, approximately the time frame for the onset of the Satpura, Malwa, and Mandla subprovince eruptions.

Based upon this, Kale et al. conclude that the majority of the Deccan Traps Flood Basalts were produced in a short period of time in the terminal Cretaceous, causing an environmental collapse which was the main driver of the End Cretaceous Extinction. The Chicxulub Impact could potentially have caused a single large mortality event against this backdrop, but is unlikely to have been the main cause of the extinction. The delayed recovery of the biosphere seen in the Early Danian is unlikely to have been caused by a 'nuclear winter' triggered by the impact, but instead probably relates to the ongoing, albeit reduced, volcanic emissions coming from the Deccan Traps at this time.

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Authorities in Singapore seize largest ever shipment of Rhinoceros horn.

A consignment of 20 Rhinoceros horns weighing 35.7 kg and with an estimated value of US$870 000 has been seized at Singapore Changi Airport, according to a press release issued by the Singapore National Parks on 18 November 2025. The consignment was discovered on 8 November by Vengadeswaran Letchumanan, an employee of air cargo handling company SATS, who noticed a strange smell coming from a package labelled 'furniture fittings' which was being shipped from South Africa to Laos.

Rhinoceros horns seized at Singapore Changi Airport on 8 November 2025. Singapore National Parks.

Concerned by the smell, Mr Vengadeswaran, contacted his line manager, who intern contacted SATS Security, who opened the package. Upon discovering the contents of the first package, three other packages from the same consignment were X-rayed, revealing similar contents. As well as the Rhinoceros horns, the packages contained 150 kg of other Animal parts, which have yet to be identified, including bones, teeth and claws.

Animal parts seized at Singapore Changi Airport on 8 November 2025. Singapore National Parks.

The Rhinoceros horns have been identified by the Centre for Wildlife Forensics as having originated from White Rhinoceros, Ceratotherium simum, a species currently listed as Near Threatened on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species. The international trade in Rhino horn was banned in 1977 under the terms of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, to which Singapore is a signatory.

South Africa is home to more than half of the world's surviving Rhinoceros population, but has (like many other countries) faced significant problems from poaching of the Animals for their horns. This reached a peak between 2013 and 2017, with more than a thousand Rhinos being killed each year in South Africa, according to Save the Rhino, although the number fell each year from 2015 until 2020. During the COVID 19 pandemic there was an increase in poaching, with the number killed rising slowly each year until 2023. There was a drop of about 15% in 2024, although this still resulted in 420 known Rhinoceros poaching incidents. The majority of Rhino poaching is thought to be carried out by organised crime syndicates, rather than opportunistic local hunters. 

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Ethiopian volcano erupts for first time in recorded history.

Hayli Gubbi, a shield volcano in the Afar Region of Ethiopia, erupted on Sunday 23 November 2025, for what appears to be the first time in recorded history. The volcano erupted for under twelve hours, from about 11.30 am to about 11.00 pm local time (about 8.30 am to about 8.00 pm GMT), producing an ash column about 14 km high, which drifted to the east over the Red Sea, according to the Toulouse Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre. Nobody was directly hurt by the eruption, but local farmers report crops being covered with ash, which may potentially lead to famine in the region.

An ash cloud over Hayli Gubbi on 23 November 2025. Afar Government Communication Service.

Hayli Gubbi is a 493 m high scoria cone (cone of ash) sitting on an older shield volcano (dome shaped volcano made up of layers of lava) located at the southernmost end of the Erte Ale Volcanic Chain. The volcano has never been observed to erupt before, and it is thought not to have erupted since the Late Pleistocene, more than 12 000 years ago, although the remote location of the volcano means that it has not been studied well. 

The deserts of Northern Ethiopia and Southern Eritrea are extremely volcanicly active, with dozens of volcanoes fed by an emerging divergent margin along the East African Rift; the Erta Ale Chain lies on the Ethiopian Rift, the boundary between the Nubian Plate and the Danakil Microplate. The African Plate is slowly splitting apart along the Ethiopian Rift and the East African Rift to the south (which is splitting the Nubian Plate to the West from the Somali Plate to the East). Arabia was a part of Africa till about thirty million years ago, when it was split away by the opening of the Red Sea Rift (part of the same rift system), and in time the Ethiopian and East African Rifts are likely to split Africa into a number of new landmasses.

Rifting in East Africa. The Danakil Microplate is the red triangle to the east of the Afar depression at the southern end of the Red Sea. Università degli Studi di Firenze.

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Outbreak of Marburg Virus in Ethiopia kills at least three.

At least three people have died due to infection with Marburg Virus Disease, with a further three deaths probably linked to the illness, in an outbreak in the town of Jinka in South Ethiopia, according to a press release issued by the World Health Organization on 21 November 2025. 

The Ethiopian Ministry of Health and Ethiopian Public Health Institute first raised the alarm about an outbreak of haemorrhagic fever in the town on 12 November, with the infection being confirmed as Marburg Virus by the National Reference Laboratory two days later. As of 20 November, 33 people have been tested for the Virus, with infection confirmed in six persons, three of whom have died, with the remaining three now receiving treatment. A further three people have died without testing, and are thought likely to have been infected. A total of 206 people who may have come into contact with the Virus have been identified, with an active program of contacting and testing in place.

This is the first known Human outbreak of Marburg Virus in Ethiopia, although the Virus has previously been found in Fruit Bats in the country. 

Map of Ethiopia showing location of Jinka town. World Health Organization.

Marburg Virus Disease is a haemorrhagic fever, similar to the closely related Ebola Virus Disease. Both are caused by single-strand negative-sense RNA viruses of the Filoviridae family. Both are easily spread though contact with bodily fluids, and can also spread by contaminated clothing and bedding.

Negative stained transmission electron micrograph of a number of filamentous Marburg Virions, which had been cultured on Vero cell cultures, and purified on sucrose, rate-zonal gradients. Erskine Palmer/Russell Regnery/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Wikimedia Commons.

Marburg Virus has an incubation period of between two and 21 days, manifesting at first as a high fever, combined with a severe headache and a strong sense of malaise. This is typically followed after about three days by severe abdominal pains, with watery diarrhoea and vomiting. In severe cases the disease develops to a haemorrhagic stage after five-to-seven days, manifesting as bleeding from some or all bodily orifices. This typically leads to death on day eight or nine, from severe blood loss and shock. There is currently no treatment or vaccine available for Marburg Virus, although a number of teams are working on trying to develop vaccines. 

Previous outbreaks of Marburg Virus have been reported in Rwanda, as well as the neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania. The Virus has also been reported in a number of other African countries, including Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa, and Tanzania. The most recent outbreaks occurred in January this year in Tanzania.

The high rate of infection of healthcare workers seen in Marburg Virus is particularly alarming, as this tends to weaken communities ability to resist the Virus. The Virus can spread quickly in healthcare settings, infecting people whose immune systems are already stressed by other conditions, and creating aa reserve which can feed infections in the wider community. This makes it important to screen all people potentially infected with the disease as quickly as possible, and to arrange for patients to be treated in isolation, as well as quickly tracing all known contacts of any cases, and screening them for infection too.

Marburg Virus is a zoonotic infection (disease transferred from Animals to Humans), with a wild-reserve of the Virus known to be present in Egyptian Fruit Bats, Rousettus aegyptiacus, which are found across much of Africa, the Mediterranean region, the Middle East, and South Asia. These Bats form large colonies in caves or sometimes mines. They are frugivores, and can be major pests of farmed fruits, bringing them into conflict with Humans, and are sometimes hunted for food, all of which create potential avenues for the Marburg Virus to pass from a Bat host to a Human one.

A colony of Egyptian Rousette Bats, Rousettus aegyptiacus. Giovanni Mari/Flikr/iNaturalist.

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