Ceoptera evansae: A new species of Darwinopteran Pterosaur from the Middle Jurassic of the Isle of Skye.

Pterosaurs first appear in the fossil record in the Late Triassic, and persist till the end of the Cretaceous. During this time three basic morphotypes are found. The Rhamphorhynchoids are present from the Late Triassic till the Late Jurassic, and are considered to be a paraphyletic group from which all non-Rhamphorhynchoid Pterosaurs are descended. The highly derived Late Jurassic-End Cretaceous Pterodactyloids, are assumed to be a monophyletic group. Between these lie the Late Jurassic Darwinopterans; the Darwinopterans and Pterodactyloids are thought to comprise a single monophyletic clade, the Monofenestrata, although it is unclear if the Darwinopterans are a polyphyletic group of basal Monofenestratans from which the Pterodactyloids are descended, or whether they are a monophyletic group forming a separate branch of the Monofenestratan family tree.

Pterosaurs had delicate skeletons, made up of numerous elongate, thin bones. This is an excellent morphology for a flying Animal, but hampers the chances of that Animal's remains from being fossilised. Thus, the majority of known Pterosaur fossils come from a small number of Konservat Lagerstätten. The excellent preservation found at these sites has given us a good understanding of Pterosaur anatomy, functional morphology, and reproduction, but because their distribution in time is rather uneven, give us a rather limited perspective on the group's evolution and history. The majority of Konservat Lagerstätten date from two periods, the Late Jurassic and Middle Cretaceous, leaving us with some large gaps in which little is known about the diversity of Pterosaurs. This includes the late Early and Middle Jurassic, an interval of about 20 million years on which almost no Pterosaurs are known. The most abundant deposit from this period is the Taynton Limestone Formation of Oxfordshire, England, but the remains extracted from this deposit comprise almost exclusively isolated, and often fragmentary, bones, telling us little more than that Pterosaurs were present. Isolated Pterosaur bones are also known from the Oxford Clay, albeit in lower abundance. Fragmentary remains are also known from Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and China during this interval, though deposits from Argentina and China previously thought to have been of Middle Jurassic origin, from which a number of Pterosaur have been described. have recently been re-evaluated as being younger or older. 

In 2022 a Middle Jurassic Rhamphorhynchine Pterosaur, Dearc sgiathanach, was described from the Isle of Skye, Scotland, and in 2023 a partial non-Pterodactyloid Pterosaur was described from the same location. These, along with a possible Aurognathid from Mongolia, are currently the only known articulated Pterosaur skeletons from the Middle Jurassic.

In a paper published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology on 5 February 2024, Elizabeth Martin-Silverstone of the Palaeobiology Research Group at the University of Bristol, David Unwin of the Centre for Palaeobiology and Biosphere Evolution and School of Museum Studies at the University of Leicester, Andrew Cuff of the Human Anatomy Resource Centre at the University of Liverpool,  Emily Brown of the Fossil Reptiles, Amphibians, and Birds Section at the Natural History Museum and the School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences at the University of Birmingham, Lu Allington-Jones of the Conservation Centre  at the Natural History Museum, and Paul Barrett, also of the Fossil Reptiles, Amphibians, and Birds Section at the Natural History Museum, describe a new species of Darwinopteran Pterosaur from the Middle Jurassic of the Isle of Skye.

The new species is named Ceoptera evansae, where 'Ceoptera' derives from 'cheò' or 'ceò' (pronounced ‘ki-yo’) the Gaelic word for 'mist', in reference to the Gaelic name for the Isle of Skye, Eilean a’Cheò, or Isle of Mist, and '-ptera' the Greek for 'wing', and 'evansae' honours Susan Evans of University College London, 'for her many years of anatomical and paleontological research, in particular on Skye', and for introducing Martin-Silverstone et al. to the locality where the specimen from which the species is described was found.

HMUK PV R37110, the holotype of Ceoptera evansae, approximately as it was found (top) and by CT reconstruction with elements (bottom). Abbreviations: c, coracoid; cv, caudal vertebra; dsc, distal syncarpal; dv,  dorsal  vertebra; fe,  femur; m,  manual-phalanx; mc,  metacarpal; mt,  metatarsal; p, pedal-phalanx; pe, pelvis; ph, phalanx; psc, proximal syncarpal; r, rib; ra, radius; s, scapula; st, sternum; tf, tibia +fibula; ul, ulna; v, vertebra; w, wing-phalanx. Martin-Silverstone et al. (2024).

Ceoptera evansae can be distinguished from all other Pterosaurs by two features: (1) the presence on the distal (sternal) portion of the coracoid shaft of a well-developed, elongate, narrow, sub-rectangular bony flange (probably a site for insertion of the sternocoracoideus muscle) with an irregular ‘wavy’ free margin, which extends proximally for almost one-quarter of the length of the coracoid; and (2) the lateral surface of the posterior, dorsally expanded, portion of the post-acetabular process of the ilium bears a prominent depression divided in two by a low, rounded vertical ridge.

Reconstruction of the right scapulocoracoid of Ceoptera evansae (NHMUK PV R37110), made from CT scans in (A) lateral and (B) medial views. (C) Reveals a close-up of the expanded sub-triangular brachial flange of the coracoid, one of the diagnostic characters of this taxon. Abbreviations: acc, acrocoracoid process; afs, articular facet for sternum; bf, brachial flange; c, coracoid; cf, coracoid flange; gl, glenoid; s, scapula; sde, distal expansion of scapula. The top scale bar is for (A) and (B). Martin-Silverstone et al. (2024).

Ceoptera evansae is calculated to have had a wingspan of about 1.6 m. Determining the maturity of Pterosaurs can be difficult, as the order in which the fusion of bones occurred seems to have been highly individualistic, often not following the same pattern in members of the same species. Nevertheless, the pelvic plates, syncarpals, and tibia-fibula of Ceoptera evansae are fully fused, probably indicating that this was a mature individual.

Skeletal  of Ceoptera  evansae (NHMUK PV R37110), showing the material that is present (top, with greyed bones indicating partially preserved elements) and an artist’s  impression of what the entire skeleton would have looked like if complete. Mark Witton in Martin-Silverstone et al. (2024).

A phylogenetic analysis was carried out including Ceoptera evansae along with previously described Pterosaurs. This recovered the Darwinoptera as a monophyletic clade, forming a sister group to the Pterodactyloids, although this is not yet sufficiently statistically strong to assume that later discoveries will not change this reconstruction.

Reduced strict consensus tree of 2890 most parsimonious trees (tree lengths = 553; Retention Index = 0.779, Consistency Index = 0.360, with bootstrap/Bremer support values for each node) showing Ceoptera evansae as a basally branching Monofenestratan (M) Pterosaur within Darwinoptera (D). Silhouettes from top to bottom of: Preondactylus; Jeholopterus; Rhamphorhynchus; Darwinopterus; Ctenochasma; Nyctosaurus; Germanodactylus; and Quetzalcoatlus. Martin-Silverstone et al. (2024).

Ceoptera evansae is the fourth known articulate Pterosaur from the Middle Jurassic, and the second described species. The interpretation of Ceoptera evansae as a member of the Darwinoptera shows that this group was not, as was implied by the previously available evidence, restricted to the Late Jurassic of East Asia, but had a much wider distribution both geographically and chronologically. Furthermore, the addition of Ceoptera evansae to the Pterosaur phylogenetic tree implies that the Darwinoptera are not simply a polyphyletic basal group of Monofenestratans, but rather a distinct clade forming a sister taxon to the Pterodactyoidea.

Life reconstruction of Ceoptera evansae. Mark Witton in Martin-Silverstone et al. (2024).

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Ten fatal Shark attacks recorded globally in 2023.

The International Shark Attack File, which is maintained by the Florida Museum of Natural History, recorded ten fatalities caused by unprovoked Shark attacks around the globe in 2023, double the number recorded in 2022. A total of 69 unprovoked attacks were recorded, which is in line with the five year average of 63. Four of the ten fatalities occurred in Australia, with two in the United States, and one each in the Bahamas, Egypt, Mexico and New Caledonia. Non-fatal attacks were recorded in the United States, Australia, New Caledonia, Brazil, Egypt, South Africa, Costa Rica, Colombia, New Zealand, the Seychelles, the Galapagos, and the Turks and Caicos islands.

There were a total of 69 confirmed unprovoked shark bites (green dots) and ten fatalities (blue dots) in 2023. Florida Museum.

The International Shark Attack File also recorded 22 provoked Shark attacks, defined as attacks caused by a Human provoking a Shark in some way, although these statistics are considered less useful for scientific purposes, as they do not relate to the Sharks' natural behaviour. While these were the result of multiple forms of Human behaviour, the most common targets of provoked attacks were spear fishers.

Three of the four fatalities in Australia happened off the Eyre Peninsula, a remote location in South Australia, noted for its wild beaches and spectacular surf. This area is also home to several Seal colonies, and a large number of Great White Sharks. Seals are extremely fast and agile swimmers, and Sharks have little hope of chasing them down in active pursuit, but they can sometimes be caught splashing around on the surface, by a Shark attacking directly from below. Unfortunately, a surfer paddling a board on the surface can look very like a Seal to a Great White Shark, leading to occasional attacks on surfers. The Sharks typically break of after a single exploratory bite, enough to determine that the surfer is not a Seal, but they are large Animals and can cause considerable damage with a single bite. 

The Eyre Peninsula is home to several beaches with substantial surf breaks, such as this one at Sleaford Bay. Mackfish/Wirestock/Adobe Stock/Florida Museum

Surfers are the most commonly attacked group globally, accounting for 42% of all bites. Many beaches in Australia have excellent beach safety programs, including rapid responders for Shark attacks. The Eyrie Peninsula, however, lacks any such support, and its remote location mean that help, if summoned, is unlikely to arrive quickly, and it is hard to evacuate Shark attack victims to medical facilities quickly.

Seven unprovoked bites, of which three were fatal, came from Great White Sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, in 2023. John Sears/Florida Museum.

The fourth Australian fatality was caused by a Bull Shark attack in a brackish river close to the coast ow Western Australia, the second of three species of Sharks known to have caused fatalities in 2023. An attack on the Red Sea coast of Egypt was carried out by a Tiger Shark, which was observed to return and attack its victim several times. This is typical of Tiger Sharks, which are an open water species, spending most of their lives in waters where prey is rare, and which are therefore more willing to take unfamiliar prey. The geography of the Red Sea, with a deep ocean trench close to shore, brings large pelagic Sharks (and other Fish) close to beaches with tourists, sometimes with fatal consequences.

While Shark attacks are alarming, they are extremely rare, with less than a hundred happening each year globally. Where rises in the number of attacks are observed, this is invariably as a consequence of more people entering the water, rather than Sharks becoming more dangerous. Some combinations of events can place Humans at greater risk of being attacked by Sharks, such as hot weather on holiday weekends. 

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Eleven confirmed deaths following landslide in Davao de Oro Province, the Philippines.

At least eleven people have died following a landslide in Davao de Oro Province on Mindanao Island in the Philippines on Tuesday 6 February 2024. The landslide hit the remote mining village of Masara early in the evening, with many of the victims being miners waiting on two busses to be taken home at the end of their shift. One hundred and ten people are still missing following the landslide, with 31 being treated for injuries. Around 1166 households in the area have been evacuated as a precaution, due to fears of further land slippage.

One of two busses hit by a landslide in Davao de Oro Province, the Philippines, on 6 February 2024. The Manila Times.

The landslide occurred following weeks of heavy rain in the region, associated with the Northern Monsoon. Landslides are a common problem after severe weather events, as excess pore water pressure can overcome cohesion in soil and sediments, allowing them to flow like liquids. Approximately 90% of all landslides are caused by heavy rainfall. In many parts of the Philippines this situation has been made worse by widespread deforestation, for agriculture, urban development, and mining, which removes the tree root systems which otherwise stabilise hillsides in wet tropical climates.

Police officers carry a body bag as search and rescue operations continue in the landslide-hit village of Masara, Davao de Oro, Philippines, 8 February 2024. Reuters.

Monsoons are tropical sea breezes triggered by heating of the land during the warmer part of the year (summer). Both the land and sea are warmed by the Sun, but the land has a lower ability to absorb heat, radiating it back so that the air above landmasses becomes significantly warmer than that over the sea, causing the air above the land to rise and drawing in water from over the sea; since this has also been warmed it carries a high evaporated water content, and brings with it heavy rainfall. In the tropical dry season the situation is reversed, as the air over the land cools more rapidly with the seasons, leading to warmer air over the sea, and thus breezes moving from the shore to the sea (where air is rising more rapidly) and a drying of the climate.

Diagrammatic representation of wind and rainfall patterns in a tropical monsoon climate. Geosciences/University of Arizona.

Southeast Asia has two distinct Monsoon Seasons, with a Northeast Monsoon driven by winds from  the South China Sea during the Southern Hemisphere Summer and a Southwest Monsoon driven by winds from the southern Indian Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere Summer. Such a double Monsoon Season is common close to the equator, where the Sun is highest overhead around the equinoxes and lowest on the horizons around the solstices, making the solstices the coolest part of the year and the equinoxes the hottest.

The winds that drive the Northeast and Southwest Monsoons in Southeast Asia. Mynewshub.

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The hottest January on Record.

January 2024 was the hottest January on record, according to the European Union's Copernicus Climate Change Service, with average global surface air temperatures reaching 13.14°. This exceeds the previous hottest January ever recorded, 2020, by 0.12°C, and the average for the period 1991-2000 by 0.70°C, as well as the (calculated) average for the period 1850-1900 by 1.66°C. This is the eight consecutive calender month to have been the hottest example of that particular calender month on record, starting from June 2023 (July 2023 was also the hottest month ever recorded).

Surface air temperature anomaly for January 2023 relative to the January average for the period 1991-2020. Copernicus Climate Change Service.

The average global sea surface temperature between 60°S and 60°N reached 20.97°C, making it the hottest January ever recorded in terms of sea surface temperatures, exceeding the previous record, set in January 2016, by 0.26°C. The month was also the second highest month overall in terms of sea surface temperature, with the hottest ever month, August 2023, being only 0.01°C hotter at 20.98°C. The average sea surface temperature for February so far exceeds this record, but the average for the month may be brought down if there are cooler days later on.

Daily sea surface temperature (°C) averaged over the extra-polar global ocean (60°S–60°N) for 2015 (blue), 2016 (yellow), 2023 (red), and 2024 (black line). All other years between 1979 and 2022 are shown with grey lines. Copernicus Climate Change Service.

Surprisingly, sea ice levels in the Arctic have been the highest since 2009, with above average concentrations of ice in the Greenland Sea (a persistent feature since October) and Sea of Okhotsk, although levels were below average in the Labrador Sea. Antarctic sea ice levels were the sixth lowest ever recorded, although they were significantly higher than in January 2023.

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A possible rope-making tool from the Late Palaeolithic of Europe.

The lives led by the Palaeolithic peoples are often difficult to understand, due to the limited number of surviving technological items, and the difficulty in understanding how these were used. Rope, twine, and string are known to have been used in the Late Palaeolithic of Europe, by impressions left on clay items, by depictions in art from the period, and by traces of fibres thought likely to have come from these materials. The manufacture of rope would require specific technology to the task, the nature of which is currently not known, either because we have not found the tools required for the task, or because we have not recognised them for what they are. 

In a paper published in the journal Science Advances on 31 January 2024, Nicholas Conard of the Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology at the University of Tübingen and the Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Paleoenvironment, and Veerle Rots of the TraceoLab at the University of Liège, propose a model for the production of rope by the early Upper Palaeolithic Aurignacian people of Europe.

Thirteen pieces of worked Mammoth ivory were discovered in a horizon dated to between 40 000 and 35 000 years before the present, during excavations at the Hohle Fels Cave in the Ach Valley of the Swabian Jura of southwestern Germany in 2015, with another two pieces in a section of collapsed material which partially derived from the same horizon. The pieces were fitted together to form a baton 20.4 cm in length, 3.6 cm wide, and 1.5 cm thick, perforated by four holes, each of which was surrounded by a spiral of six precisely carved grooves. The object was obviously carefully made, and the grooves carefully chiselled, although it shows little use-associated wear.

Ivory perforated baton from Hohle Fels Cave, southwestern Germany with four views. Convex surface second from the left, flat surface far right. Distal end up, handle down. Hildegard Jensen in Conard & Rots (2024).

The Hohle Cave was occupied on numerous occasions by both Humans and Cave Bears, both of which disturbed the floor, leading to a degree of time averaging within deposits. The exact age of the baton could not be determined, however, Conard and Rots are confident that it is no more than 40 000 years old and no less than 35 000 years old, based upon dates obtained from Human-modified bones from the same layer. Furthermore, only one of the dates from this layer was older than 36 500 years, making it very likely that the baton comes from the later part of the window. 

Hohle Fels. Perforated baton of Mammoth ivory from Aurignacian layer AH Va at the time of discovery in July 2015. Conard & Rots (2024).

Four other perforated batons have previously been described from Aurignacian deposits within the Swabian Caves. One of these appears to have been almost identical to the Hohle Cave baton, and was found at Geißenklösterle Cave, 2 km downstream of Hohle Cave in the Ash Valley, in 1984. This baton was more weathered and fragmented than the Hohle Cave example, and split into 30 fragments. It was recovered from a layer which also produced a number of Aurignacian tools, and which has been dated to between 42 500 and 37 000 years before the present.

The baton from Geissenklösterle. Conard & Rots (2024).

Another three perforated Mammoth ivory batons were found in layers which produced Aurignacian tools at Vogelherd in the Lone Valley in 1931. One of these has two perforations with spiral grooves, and was interpreted as a gorget. A second baton had a single hole, again with spiral grooves, and was interpreted as a bullroarer. A third baton had at least one hole with spiral grooves, but was broken. Exact dating is not available for this site, although there is no reason to believe that the Aurignacian tools from here came from a notably different time interval from those from other sites in the Swabian Jura.

Location of Aurignacian sites in the Swabian Jura. Conard & Rots (2024).

Perforated batons have also been recorded from a range of other Upper Palaeolithic sites across Europe, although the four-holed batons from Hohle and Geißenklösterle are distinctive, with no examples from elsewhere, and the two known specimens coming from a limited geographical range and chronological interval. Notably, these are also among the oldest known examples of perforated batons. Later examples, from the Aurignacian and Gravettian periods, before the Last Glacial Maximum, and the Magdalenian period, after the Last Glacial Maximum are found across Central Europe, and are generally single-holed and made from Reindeer antler. The majority of these have smooth holes, but some have carved grooves similar to those seen in the Swabian Batons. The nature of these batons has remained obscure, with most interpretations regarding them as ritual objects, and the grooves, where present, as being symbolic in nature. Other interpretations have suggested that they were used for straightening arrow shafts, or working leather.

Macro- and microscopic images of the ivory perforated baton from Hohle Fels and residue evidence. (A) Ivory perforated baton. (B) Plant tissue extracted from Lochstab (transmitted-light microscopy). (C) Possible tracheid extracted from Lochstab (transmitted-light microscopy). (D) to (K) Details of the grooved holes according to their position on the artifact. Images are taken on the main fragmented parts of the Lochstab before refitting. Both faces of each hole are depicted in the order as depicted in (A) (distal hole: (D) and (H), note fracture in groove on (H); left central hole: (E) and (I); right central hole: (F) and (J); proximal hole/near handle: (G) and (K)). Hildegard Jensen, Dries Cnuts, & Veerle Rots in Conard & Rots (2024).

The discovery of the Hohle baton led Conard and Rots to re-examine the Geißenklösterle baton, and the extreme similarity of these objects led then to conclude that these were more likely to be tools, which would require the maker to stick closely to a predetermined pattern, rather than ritual objects, where some artistic license might be expected. The holes appear to be intended to have something threaded through them, which led Conard and Rots to hypothesise that they might have been used to make rope or twine, with the groves being used to align fibres in some way. Twine can be made by hand, simply by twisting fibres together, so Conard and Rots decided to experiment with the making of rope, using a replica of the baton, made from bone since ivory was not readily available (an attempt was first made to replicate the baton in wood, but it was found the grooves broke off too easily). This was then replaced with a baton made from Warthog tooth ivory.

Experimental pieces in bone (top) and Warthog tooth ivory (bottom). Conard & Rots (2024).

Conard and Rots began by threading different materials through the holes of the modern baton, experimenting with Deer sinews, as well as Flax, Linum, Hemp, Cannabis, Cattail, Typha, Linden, Tilia, Willow, Salix, and Nettles, Urtica. The baton proved to be ineffective for the processing of sinew, Flax, Nettles, and Hemp, but more positive results were achieved with Cattail, Linden, and Willow. The batton proved to be particularly effective for processing Cattail, crushing the hard outer surface of the stems, which produced (edible) starch as well as usable fibres. Many modern peoples are known to make rope from Cattail, and ropes made from this material have been found in a variety of archaeological contexts (albeit later than the Aurignacian). Cattail can also be used for food, cordage, and basketry. Pollen has not been studied in any Aurignacian layers within the Swabian Jura, but Cattail pollen is known from Gravettian layers at Hohle Fels, and the climate during thr Aurignacian would have been favourable for this Plant. Willow is known as charcoal from the Aurignacian layers at Hohle Fels.

Use of the ivory artefact for Tilia (left) and for Typha (right). Conard & Rots (2024).

The baton could be used to manufacture thin ropes, but was not essential, as these are not difficult to make by hand. However, experimentation with the use of all four holes on the baton found that it was particularly useful for making thicker, stronger ropes from two to four strands. By maintaining a regular thickness of each strand, it enabled the manufacture of long lengths of rope. The grooves help to break down and orient leaves while maintaining torsion, the tool can then be run over the strands at a regular speed, causing them to combine automatically into a rope as a result of the twisting tension. One person is needed to hold the tool and one to hold each strand, so three to five people are needed to make a rope with two to four strands, with the number of holes used determining the number of strands and therefore the thickness of the rope. The experiments found that it was possible to produce 5 m of strong, supple rope in 10 minutes.

Pulling the Typha through the holes and rotating fibres into strands by hand. Conard & Rots (2024).

Conard and Rots have demonstrated that the four-holed Aurignacian artefacts from Hohle Fels and Geißenklösterle are efficient rope-making tools, providing an answer to the question of how rope was produced in the European Upper Palaeolithic. Rope and twine are used for a wide variety of purposes by modern Humans, and all modern hunter-gatherer populations are known to use rope and twine for a wide variety of purposes, making it unlikely that the Aurignacian culture could have managed without it. The methodology demonstrated by Conard and Rots requires multiple people to co-operate on the manufacture of rope, and is therefore also indicative of a culture in which people had a well-developed sense of community, further underlining how this ability to co-operate would have been advantageous .

The manufacture of a three-stranded rope from Typha. Conard & Rots (2024).

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