African Elephants now classified as Endangered and Critically Endangered.

Following population declines over several decades due to poaching for ivory and loss of habitat, the African Forest Elephant, Loxodonta cyclotis, is now listed as Critically Endangered and the African Savanna Elephant, Loxodonta africana, as Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species, according to a press release issued by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature on 25 March 2021. Before this update, African Elephants were treated as a single species, listed as Vulnerable; this is the first time the two species have been assessed separately for the Red List of Threatened Species, following the emergence of new genetic evidence.

 

The African Forest Elephant, Loxodonta cyclotis, is now listed as Critically Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species. The species occurs in the Tropical Forests of Central Africa and a range of habitats in West Africa. Frank af Petersens/Save the Elephants.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species now includes 134 425 species of which 37 480 are threatened with extinction.

'Africa’s Elephants play key roles in ecosystems, economies and in our collective imagination all over the world. Today’s new Red List assessments of both African Elephant species underline the persistent pressures faced by these iconic Animals,' said Bruno Oberle, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Director General. 'We must urgently put an end to poaching and ensure that sufficient suitable habitat for both Forest and Savanna Elephants is conserved. Several African countries have led the way in recent years, proving that we can reverse Elephant declines, and we must work together to ensure their example can be followed.'

The latest assessments highlight a broadscale decline in African Elephant numbers across the continent. The number of African Forest Elephants fell by more than 86% over a period of 31 years, while the population of African Savanna Elephants decreased by at least 60% over the last 50 years, according to the assessments.

Both species suffered sharp declines since 2008 due to a significant increase in poaching, which peaked in 2011 but continues to threaten populations. The ongoing conversion of their habitats, primarily to agricultural and other land uses, is another significant threat. The 2016 IUCN African Elephant Status Report provides the most recent reliable estimate of the continental population of the two species combined, at around 415 000 Elephants. 

 

The African Savanna Elephant, Loxodonta africana, is now listed as Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species. Jane Wynyard/Save the Elephants.

Despite the overall declining trend of both African Elephant species, the assessments also highlight the impact of successful conservation efforts. Anti-poaching measures on the ground, together with more supportive legislation and land use planning which seeks to foster Human-wildlife coexistence, have been key to successful Elephant conservation. As a result, some Forest Elephants have stabilised in well-managed conservation areas in Gabon and the Republic of the Congo. Savanna Elephant numbers have also been stable or growing for decades especially in the Kavango-Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area, which harbours the largest subpopulation of this species on the continent.

'While the results of the assessment place the continental population of Savanna Elephants in the Endangered category, it is important to keep in mind that at a site level, some subpopulations are thriving. For this reason, considerable caution and local knowledge are required when translating these results into policy,' said Dave Balfour, assessor of the African Elephants and member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Species Survival Commission African Elephant Specialist Group. 

The decision to treat African Forest and Savanna Elephants as separate species is the result of the consensus that has emerged among experts following new research into the genetics of Elephant populations. Forest Elephants occur in the tropical forests of Central Africa and in a range of habitats in West Africa. They rarely overlap with the range of the Savanna Elephant, which prefers open country and is found in a variety of habitats in Sub-Saharan Africa including grasslands and deserts. The Forest Elephant, which has a more restricted natural distribution, is thought to occupy only a quarter of its historic range today, with the largest remaining populations found in Gabon and the Republic of the Congo.

'For these assessments, a team of six assessors used data from as far back as the 1960s and a fully data-driven modelling approach to consolidate the decades-long efforts of many survey teams for the first time. The results quantify the dramatic extent of the decline of these ecologically important Animals. With persistent demand for ivory and escalating Human pressures on Africa’s wild lands, concern for Africa’s Elephants is high, and the need to creatively conserve and wisely manage these Animals and their habitats is more acute than ever,' said Kathleen Gobush, lead assessor of the African Elephants and member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Species Survival Commission African Elephant Specialist Group.

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International Union for the Conservation of Nature declares 31 species extinct in 2020.

The European Bison, Bison bonasus, Europe’s largest land Mammal, has moved from Vulnerable to Near Threatened thanks to continued conservation efforts, according to a press release issued by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature on 10 December 2020. With this update, 31 species also move into the Extinct category, and all of the world’s Freshwater Dolphin species are now threatened with extinction.

 

European Bison, Bison bonasus. Rafał Kowalczyk/International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

There are now 128 918 species on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species, of which 35,765 are threatened with extinction.

'The European Bison and twenty-five other species recoveries documented in today’s IUCN Red List update demonstrate the power of conservation,' said Bruno Oberle, International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Director General. 'Yet the growing list of Extinct species is a stark reminder that conservation efforts must urgently expand. To tackle global threats such as unsustainable fisheries, land clearing for agriculture, and invasive species, conservation needs to happen around the world and be incorporated into all sectors of the economy.'

'The conservation successes in today’s Red List update provide living proof that the world can set, and meet, ambitious biodiversity targets. They further highlight the need for real, measurable commitments as we formulate and implement the post-2020 global biodiversity framework,' said Jane Smart, Global Director of International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Biodiversity Conservation Group. 

As a result of long-term conservation management, the wild population of European Bison, Bison bonasus, has grown from around 1800 in 2003 to over 6200 in 2019, justifying the move from Vulnerable to Near Threatened. The species survived only in captivity in the early 20^th century, and was reintroduced to the wild in the 1950s. The largest subpopulations are now found in Poland, Belarus and Russia. There are currently 47 free-ranging European Bison herds. However, herds are largely isolated from one another and confined to non-optimal forest habitats, and only eight of them are large enough to be genetically viable in the long term. The species remains dependent on ongoing conservation measures such as translocations of Bison to more optimal open habitats and reduction of Human-Bison conflicts.

'Historically, European Bison were reintroduced mostly to forest habitats, where they don’t find enough food in winter. However, when they move out of the forest into agricultural areas, they often find themselves in conflict with people. To reduce the conflict risk and the bison’s dependence on supplementary feeding, it will be important to create protected areas that include open meadows for them to graze”, said Rafał Kowalczyk, co-author of the new assessment and member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Bison Specialist Group. 

 

A European Bison, Bison bonasus. Rafał Kowalczyk/International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

With the Tucuxi, Sotalia fluviatilis, moving from Data Deficient to Endangered, all of the world’s Freshwater Dolphin species are now listed as threatened on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List. This small grey Dolphin species found in the Amazon river system has been severely depleted by incidental mortality in fishing gear, damming of rivers and pollution. Eliminating the use of gillnets, curtains of fishing net that hang in the water, and reducing the number of dams in Tucuxi habitat are priorities to enable numbers to recover. Enforcing the ban on the deliberate killing of Tucuxis is also essential.

 

Tucuxi, Sotalia fluviatilis. Fernando Trujillo/International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

The Lost Shark, Carcharhinus obsoletus, which was only formally described last year, enters the Red List as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct). The species was last recorded in 1934. Its habitat in the South China Sea has been extensively fished for more than a century and remains one of the most overexploited marine regions in the world. As it is unlikely that the species could have persisted under this heavy pressure, the Lost Shark may already be extinct.

All of the 17 Freshwater Fish species endemic to Lake Lanao and its outlet in the Philippines are now Extinct (15 species) or Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) (two species). The extinctions were caused by predatory introduced species, compounded by overharvesting and destructive fishing methods.

 

 

Extinct Cyprinid Fish from Lake Lanao, the Philippines. Armi Torres/International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

Three Central American Frog species have been newly declared Extinct. Additionally, twenty-two Frog species across Central and South America were listed as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct). The main driver of these drastic declines is Chytridiomycosis disease. Conservation efforts to protect critical habitat are helping populations of several other Amphibian species to recover. Among them is the Oaxaca Treefrog, Sarcohyla celata, which moved from Critically Endangered to Near Threatened thanks to actions by local communities in Mexico.

The Protea family has been comprehensively assessed with this update, revealing that 45% (637 of 1464 species) of these striking Flowering Plants that grow mainly across the Southern Hemisphere are Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered. Many of the species have highly restricted ranges, making them more vulnerable to the spread of invasive alien species, changes to natural fire cycles caused by Humans and linked with climate change, and loss of habitat to agriculture. The Protea family includes three Macadamia species, the same species that produce the farmed Macadamia nut crop, which have entered the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List as threatened with extinction in the wild. The Macadamia Nut (Macadamia integrifolia) is listed as Vulnerable, while Macadamia ternifolia and Macadamia tetraphylla are listed as Endangered.

 

The Protea, Grevillea caleyi, from New South Wales, now classified as Critically Endangered. Tony Auld/International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

Oak trees have been comprehensively assessed, revealing that almost one third (31%, 113 of 430 species) are threatened with extinction. Nine Asian oaks enter the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List already Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct or Possibly Extinct in the Wild). The highest numbers of threatened species are in China and Mexico, followed by Viet Nam, the United States and Malaysia. Land clearance for agriculture and logging are the most common threats in China, Mexico and Southeast Asia. Invasive alien species and diseases and climate change are the key threats to Oaks in the United States.

 

Quercus liaoi, a species of Oak known only from Taiwan. Béatrice Chassé/International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

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Coendou vestitus: Assessing the conservation status of the Brown Hairy Dwarf Porcupine in Colombia.

The Brown Hairy Dwarf Porcupine, Coendou vestitus, is one of the rarest of the seven species of Porcupines (genus Coendou) that occur in Colombia. It is a small species (head–body length 330–370 mm), characterized by having three types of fur: long dorsal fur, bicolored defensive fur, and bristles. Since its description more than a century ago, it has been recorded from only six localities. This species is considered endemic to both sides of the Eastern Cordillera in the Colombian Andes, which is a complex ecosystem with topographical and biological diversity and high levels of endemism. Andean ecosystems are a global conservation priority as only 25% of their original extent remains.

Although Coendou vestitus is considered rare this condition has not been evaluated, and it has been suggested based only on the absence of data and the paucity of voucher specimens. Information on the ecology, genetics, natural history and conservation status of the species is also scarce, and in the case of the latter, contradictory. This Porcupine is categorized as Data Deficient on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species, with the assessment considering the presence of the species from only two localities, although in the same assessment three localities were mentioned. Nationally, the species has been categorised as Vulnerable based on its reduced geographical range as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation. Currently, it is the only Porcupine species categorised as threatened in Colombia. 

In a paper published in the journal Orynx on 17 November 2020, María Torres-Martínez of the Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia e Conservação and Laboratório de Biodiversidade, Conservação e Ecologia de Animais Silvestres at the Universidade Federal do Paraná, Héctor Ramírez-Chaves of the Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas and Museo de Historia Natural at the Universidad de Caldas, Elkin Noguera-Urbano of the Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos, Alexander von Humboldt, and Fernando Passos, also of the  Programa de Pós-graduação em Ecologia e Conservação and Laboratório de Biodiversidade, Conservação e Ecologia de Animais Silvestres at the Universidade Federal do Paraná, evaluate the level of rarity of the Brown Hairy Dwarf Porcupine and reassess its conservation status, based on available literature, specimens in natural history museums and collections, and data from recent records.

To evaluate the rarity of the species Torres-Martínez et al. followed the criteria of Jinpeng Yu & Stephen Dobson, based on four characteristics: (1) local population density, (2) range, (3) the number of habitat types in which the species occurs and (4) body size. In addition, Torres-Martínez et al. suggest factors that may have determined the rarity category of this species. As the species population density has not been assessed, Torres-Martínez et al. documented the number of records per year since the species description. They consider the population density to be low if the number of records evaluated is less than one for each ten-year interval (there are about 10 000 records of Mammals in databases for  Cundinamarca, the department in which Coendou vestitus has been historically recorded). Torres-Martínez et al. also estimated the species range and related this to the rarity level using the extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. They calculated the extent of occurrence using the minimum convex polygon (linking the known points of occurrence for the species), and the area of occupancy by summing the area of grid squares in which the species is known (using grid squares of 2 km² as recommended by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature) in GeoCAT. For this Torres-Martínez et al. used data from six confirmed localities. Three of these are voucher specimens housed at Colombian collections and the other three are photographic records. The photographs showed characters used to differentiate Coendou vestitus from other species in this genus: dorsal pelage with long blackish fur that partially or completely conceals defensive quills, and bicoloured bristle-quills. Torres-Martínez et al. excluded one voucher specimen, ICN 3505, from their analyses because the specimen was transported from another locality in the western part of the Eastern Cordillera; the location on the label of the specimen is in a market area.

Torres-Martínez et al. also considered the number of habitats occupied by the species. For this, they overlaid the extent of occurrence on the ecoregions of Colombia, following the classification of terrestrial ecoregions. Torres-Martínez et al. evaluated body size based on information from the labels of the reviewed voucher specimens and from the literature, and compared this trait with other species of Coendou.

To reassess the species conservation status, Torres-Martínez et al. used information on the level of rarity, extent of occurrence and area of occupancy. They included the level of rarity and the ecoregions the species inhabits to infer the conservation status of the species because of the absence of information on other factors that can influence the area of occupancy, such as biotic interactions (predation, competition) and landscape (connectivity and shelter). Torres-Martínez et al. also examined whether the extent of occurrence or area of occupancy of Coendou vestitus overlaps with protected areas, by using the protected areas layer for Colombia, and evaluated the per cent of forest area that remained unchanged during 2016-2017 within the polygon of the species range. To evaluate overlap of the area of occupancy and extent of occurrence with protected areas, Torres-Martínez et al. estimated the extent (km²) of protected areas inside the extent of occurrence polygon using as a limit the elevational range of the species, and determined the number of confirmed localities inside protected areas.

Torres-Martínez et al.'s findings indicate that Coendou vestitus matches the criteria of an extremely rare species

From the description of Coendou vestitus to the present, Torres-Martínez et al. found only 12 voucher specimens and photographs of three living specimens. Three records had no precise locality information. The records date from the species description in 1889 to photographic records from Cundinamarca in 2018. The scarcity of records suggests a low population density, considering that several biological expeditions have visited the area in which the species occurs (Cundinamarca is the Department in which Bogotá, the capital of Colombia and home of the main Colombian academic institutions, is located).

 

Photographic record (June 2018) of Coendou vestitus from Pedro Palo, Tena, Colombia. Sergio Chaparro in Torres-Martínez et al. (2020).

It has been suggested that the elevational range of Coendou vestitus is 1300–2600 m, 250-2000 m, and 600-1440 m. However, based on the information from confirmed localities, and discarding a dubious record from Villavicencio, the elevational range appears to be from 1250 m (Cundinamarca, Quipile) to 2600 m (Cundinamarca, Chicaque). The estimated area of the species range is based on only six confirmed localities, with an estimated extent of occurrence of 3320 km² and an area of occupancy of 24 km².

 

Extent of occurrence of Coendou vestitus, with (a) protected areas within the extent of occurrence, indicating the two records in protected areas, and (b) forest coverage in 2016-2017. Torres-Martínez et al. (2020).

Overlaying the extent of occurrence on the terrestrial ecoregions map indicated that the species only occurs in tropical moist broadleaf forest. This ecoregion corresponds to the highly threatened sub-Andean and Andean forests.

The adult body size of Coendou vestitus (total length of head and body 330-370 mm) is within the range observed for small Coendou species (Coendou insidiosus 310-350 mm; Coendou nycthemera 290-380 mm; Coendou pruinosus 320-380 mm; Coendou rufescens 340-410 mm; Coendou melanurus 330-435 mm; Coendou quichua 330-440 mm; Coendou speratus 330-440 mm; Coendou spinosus 285-470 mm; Coendou bicolor 450-500 mm; Coendou prehensilis 430-500 mm), being the third smallest species of the genus after Coendou ichillus (260-290 mm) and Coendou roosmalenorum (290 mm). Coendou vestitus has, however, a considerably shorter tail than the latter species.

Torres-Martínez et al. found only two localities (of the six confirmed) within conservation areas (33.3% of the occurrences), although the extent of occurrence polygon intersected with 35 protected areas, managed by two institutions (Corporación Autónoma Regional and Parques Naturales Nacionales de Colombia). Specifically, these 35 areas include one Soil Conservation District, five Regional Protected Forest Reserves, eight Regional Integrated Management Districts, and 21 Natural Civil Society Reserves. The portions of the protected areas within the extent of occurrence polygon have a total area of 1025 km², with 1298 km² of the extent of occurrence not lying within protected areas. When overlapping the forest coverage with the extent of occurrence polygon, the forest coverage during 2016-2017 was 219 km² (6.6%). Considering the species’ range and its rarity, Torres-Martínez .et al recommend that Coendou vestitus is recategorized from Data Deficient to Endangered based on the following criteria: an of less than 5000 km², and continuing decline inferred in extent and/or quality of habitat, number of locations or subpopulations, and the number of mature individuals, and similarly with an area of occupancy of under 500 km²; the population size is estimated to number less than 2500 mature individuals with a continuing decline, observed, projected, or inferred, and, continuing decline, observed, projected or inferred, in numbers of mature individuals, and extreme fluctuations in number of mature individuals.

Torres-Martínez et al.'s recommendation to categorise Coendou vestitus as Endangered follows International Union for the Conservation of Nature recommendations to assess poorly known taxa based on information on inferred habitat loss and restricted distribution, to avoid assigning a Data Deficient category. The current International Union for the Conservation of Nature information is incomplete (with area of occupancy and extent of occurrence unknown) because it includes data for only from two localities.  The periodic re-evaluation of a species’ Red List status is an important tool for the planning, monitoring and management of biodiversity conservation.

Besides being an endemic and rare species, Torres-Martínez et al.'s findings confirm that Coendou vestitus is restricted to an ecosystem in which habitat is being lost and there are continuing threats from anthropogenic transformation. The Eastern Cordillera comprises 40% of Andean ecosystems, but only 27% of its original vegetation cover remains. Although this region is characterised by high species richness and endemism it is one of the least known and least protected ecosystems. Habitat loss affects the persistence of small Mammals, which play important ecological roles, for example as seed dispersers of pioneer species, and in trophic and predator–prey relationships.

Although Coendou vestitus has previously been considered a rare species because of the scarcity of records, there are other reasons for it to be considered rare. Although other Porcupines in Colombia are known from fewer specimens (e.g. Coendou ichillus), they are not endemic to the country, having a wider distribution. Torres-Martínez et al.'s confirmation of rarity is based on a combination of apparent low local population density, a small range, occurrence in only one habitat type, and small body size.

In general, small-sized species of Coendou (e.g. Coendou. ichillus, Coendou roosmalenorum and Coendou vestitus) have more restricted distributions in the northern part of South America compared to the larger species that have only one type of quills in adulthood (e.g. Coendou prehensilis and Coendou bicolor). The rarity of Coendouvestitus is perhaps associated with homoplastic functional traits such as the presence of three types of hairs in adulthood (i.e. with less protection against predators than species with a body fully-covered by quills) and small body size. Several species of African small Mammals have been categorized as rare or Vulnerable because their size could influence predator–prey relationships. In this context, additional morphological characters may confer an adaptive advantage to large Coendou species: a body mostly covered by quills in adulthood provides a possible advantage against predators, the swollen nasofrontal sinuses protect the brain, and a larger tail facilitates arboreal locomotion, as observed in Coendoubicolor and Coendouprehensilis. The morphological and/or evolutionary reasons for the restricted range of small-sized Coendou are, however, as yet unclear, and require further research.

Although 106 genera, 333 species and 61 subspecies of Rodents are considered threatened and have high endemism, a relatively lower percentage of Rodents are categorised as threatened compared to other Mammalian groups. No Coendou species are as yet categorized as threatened, six are categorised as Data Deficient, including Coendou vestitus, and eight as Least Concern.

The only locations of Coendouvestitus within protected areas are in the 2.44 km² Nature Reserve Parque Natural Chicaque and the 0.45 km² Natural Civil Society Reserve Tenasuca de Pedro Palo, which together correspond to only 0.08% of the species’ range. In addition to the small extent of occurrence, the area of the 35 protected areas within the extent of occurrence is small (a mean of 29 km² per protected area). The area surrounding the extent of occurrence is severely affected by extensive commercial plantations and urban settlements, with only about 50% of the ecoregion unaffected. This limits connectivity, which is important for the persistence of a species. Maintenance, extension or connection of protected areas, connecting the relict habitats, could help to protect Coendou vestitus.

Conservation strategies and financial resources need  be established for threatened and endemic species and for species with restricted distributions. However, for Mammals most monitoring and conservation efforts are directed at large or charismatic species. Less attention has been directed at Rodents, even though the group has a high extinction rate. Prioritising the conservation of Coendou vestitus has the potential to contribute to the protection of the ecosystems in which it occurs and of co-occurring species. Torres-Martínez .et al recommend that national agencies prioritise this Porcupine species, together with other species in urgent need of monitoring.

Porcupines remain a poorly known group, both at national and Neotropical levels. Knowledge of the ecology of Coendou vestitus is mostly based on inference from other Porcupine species. Torres-Martínez et al.'s compilation of information on  Coendou vestitus highlights the need for further fieldwork and data collection. Nevertheless, threats to Porcupines are evident, in particular loss of habitat, illegal trade, road-kills, and hunting for consumption. In Colombia, illegal captivity has also been documented (on a voucher specimen label) as a threat to the species. Torres-Martínez et al.'s compilation of data and our findings form the basis for further research and for the establishment of conservation strategies and future evaluations of the distribution and conservation status of Coendou vestitus.

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