Photographic evidence for the presence of Snow Leopards in the Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Snow Leopards, Panthera uncia, are the least well understood of the Big Cats, due to their secretive habits and the remote and inhospitable environments in which they live. The species is currently considered to be Vulnerable under the terms of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species, although our poor understanding of the species numbers and distribution makes this largely a guess. There thought to be about 400-700 Snow Leopards in India (about 2% of the global population), inhabiting the sub-alpine, alpine and trans-Himalayan regions of Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. Within Kashmir, Snow Leopards are known from Gurez and Sonamarg, the upper Baltal-Zojila region, the Kargil Range, and the areas adjacent to the north-eastern and south-eastern boundary of Kishtwar that connect with the Zanskar range in the Union Territory of Ladakh. In other parts of Kashmir, including many protected areas, the presence of Snow Leopards is uncertain.

In a paper published in the journal Oryx on 9 May 2024, Oyndrila Sanyal of the Wildlife Biology Laboratory at the University of Kashmir, Tawqir Bashir, also of the Wildlife Biology Laboratory at the University of Kashmir, and of the Division of Wildlife Sciences at the Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, and Monaj Rana and Pankaj Chandan of the Nature, Wildlife and Climate Change Division of the National Development Foundation, present the results of camara-trap survey for Snow Leopards carried out in the Kishtwar High Altitude National Park in Jammu and Kashmir.

The Kishtwar High Altitude National Park covers an area of 2191 km², at altitudes ranging from 1800 m and 6000 m, between the Chenab River and the Nagin Sheer Glacier. The park borders Ladakh to the northeast and Himachal Pradesh to the south. Most areas in the park above an altitude of about 4300 m are essentially inaccessible, due to the rugged nature of the terrain and the hostile climate. The wide range of altitudes in the park, combined with similar variations in slope and moisture availability, lead to the presence of a wide range of vegetation types. The park supports thousands of nomadic herders, and is home to a number of temples, which draw large numbers of pilgrims. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Snow Leopards may be present in the Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, with claims of a possible sighting as well as several reports of tracks, although none of these has been photographed or confirmed by scientists.

Sanyal et al. divided the Kishtwar High Altitude National Park into a grid of 5 km x 5 km cells. Camera-traps were placed at 57 locations in 18 cells for a year, between May 2022 and June 2023. Up to four cameras were placed in a single cell, concentrating on natural trails, trail junctions, ridge lines and other locations likely to be used by Carnivores. Cameras were checked once a month (except in winter) to ensure they were working, and replace their memory cards. All of the camera-traps were placed in the southern, south-western and central areas of the park; the northern, north-eastern, eastern and south-eastern regions being above 4500 m and largely covered by glaciers.

The study area, showing the location of camera-trap stations and the new Snow Leopard, Panthera uncia, occurrence records in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, Jammu and Kashmir, India, and three earlier records in the adjacent landscape. Sanyal et al. (2024).

At 11.03 pm local time on 19 September 2022, a camera-trap located Kiyar catchment of the Dacchan range at 3280 m above sealevel captured an image of two Snow Leopards. This was the first photographic evidence ever obtained for the species being present in the Kishtwar High Altitude National Park. During the remainder of the survey, seven further images were obtained in three other grid squares, in the Kiyar and Nanth catchments of the Dacchan Range and the Renai catchment of the Marwah Range. Of the eight images captured, four were taken at night and four in the day. Based upon their patterns (which are unique to individual Leopards), at least four different members of the species were observed. All of the images were taken at altitudes of between 3004 m and 3878 m, in an arid alpine region above the treelike, with a steep and rugged terrain flanked by high-altitude pastures of Junipers, Grasses and Legumes on rolling hills.

Camera-trap photographic records of the Snow Leopard, Panthera uncia, in Kishtwar High Altitude National Park, Jammu and Kashmir, India; (a) is the first camera-trap record, on 19 September 2022, with two individuals. Sanyal et al.  (2024).

Sanyal et al. also recorded the presence of Siberian Ibex and Himalayan Musk Deer in the same areas are the Snow Leopards, as well as Long-tailed Marmots, and Pika, all of which could serve as potential prey species. The most frequently recorded of these species was the Siberian Ibex. A number of other Carnivore species were also recorded, including Himalayan Brown Bear, Asian Black Bear, Red Fox, Leopard Cat, Yellow-throated Marten, and Mountain Weasel. The Red Fox was the overall most frequently imaged Animal in the study, but this is probably because the cameras were positioned to detect Carnivores; it is not suggested that Carnivores are more common than prey Animals.

Sanyal et al. note that the area is under considerable pressure from Human activities, with about 3000 herders regularly visiting the alpine pastures in the Marwah Range, bringing with them about 150 000 head of livestock. This many domestic Animals presents a threat to the prey species relied on by the Snow Leopards, and therefore the Leopards themselves. This could potentially lead to Human-Leopard conflict if the Leopards respond to a shortage of prey by targeting livestock, or to the Leopards being excluded from pasturelands and forced to depend on less optimal environments. The camara-trap evidence suggests that both the Leopards and their prey species tend to avoid livestock grazing areas during summer (May-August) which could mean that anthropogenic pressures are already affecting them. 

The Kishtwar High Altitude National Park is clearly a habitat utilised by Snow Leopards, potentially providing a bridge between three other important Snow Leopard habitats, the greater Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir, the trans-Himalayas of Ladakh,  and the lesser Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh. This implies that the park is important to Snow Leopard conservation efforts in India, and globally. To this end, Sanyal et al. recommend a more comprehensive study of Snow Leopards in the Kishtwar High Altitude National Park is carried out, including areas such as the Paddar and Wadwan valleys, which were missed in their study.

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Flooding and landslides kill at least twenty two people in northern India.

At least twenty two people have lost their lives in a series of flooding and landslide events across northern India, where this year's monsoon has brought 59% more rainfall so far this year than would be expected at by this date on an average year.

Six people have died in four separate incidents in Himachal Pradesh; three members of the same family died in when their house collapsed after being hit by a landslide. Two other people died in landslides in Kullu and Chamba districts. Also in Shimla, a young girl is reported to have died when a raft of debris caried by floodwaters struck her home; an elderly lady is reportedly still trapped beneath the debris of the building, with rescuers attempting to reach her. The state recorded 14 major landslides and 13 flash floods on Friday 7 and Saturday 8 July 2023. There are also reports of shops being swept away in the resort town of Manali, and of cars being washed away in several districts. Over 700 roads in Himachal Pradesh are currently closed, with flooding and landslips sweeping away many roads connecting remote communities to the outside world, and all schools and colleges will be closed on Monday and Tuesday as a precaution. The city of Solan recorded 135 mm of rain on Sunday 9 July, the highest ever rainfall recorded, breaking a previous record of 105 mm set in 1971. 

The Beas River in Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh, on Sunday 9 July 2023. Press Trust of India.

In Uttarakhand three people are known to have died and three are still missing after a landslide swept their jeep into the swollen Ganga River, while they were undertaking a pilgrimage. Five other people who were in the vehicle have been rescued. In another incident in the same state, a house collapse in Kashipur is reported to have killed two people and injured their granddaughter.

In Jammu and Kashmir two people are reported to have died when a landslide hit the bus they were travelling in in Doda District. Elsewhere in the state, a man was killed when his car was struck by a falling boulder in Ladakh, and two soldiers are reported to have drowned while attempting to cross a river in Poonch District.

Part of the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway in Jammu and Kashmir swept away by a landslide. Press Trust of India.

In Haryana State a man is reported to have drowned in Gurugram District, while another man, reportedly his cousin, is still missing. 

In Uttar Pradesh, a 10-year-old girl is reported to have died when a tree fell onto the shack she was living in in Kaushambi District, while in Muzaffarnagar District a woman and her six-year-old daughter died when the roof of their home collapsed under the weight of water that had pooled there. In the city of Ballia two people died and three more were injured after being struck by lightning in separate incidents. 

Monsoons are tropical sea breezes triggered by heating of the land during the warmer part of the year (summer). Both the land and sea are warmed by the Sun, but the land has a lower ability to absorb heat, radiating it back so that the air above landmasses becomes significantly warmer than that over the sea, causing the air above the land to rise and drawing in water from over the sea; since this has also been warmed it carries a high evaporated water content, and brings with it heavy rainfall. In the tropical dry season, the situation is reversed, as the air over the land cools more rapidly with the seasons, leading to warmer air over the sea, and thus breezes moving from the shore to the sea (where air is rising more rapidly) and a drying of the climate. This situation is particularly intense in South Asia, due to the presence of the Himalayas. High mountain ranges tend to force winds hitting them upwards, which amplifies the South Asian Summer Monsoon, with higher winds leading to more upward air movement, thus drawing in further air from the sea.

Diagrammatic representation of wind and rainfall patterns in a tropical monsoon climate. Geosciences/University of Arizona.

While the monsoon always brings problems to India, this year's monsoon has produced an uneven distribution of rain, with the north of the country receiving 59% more rain than would usually be expected, while in the south, between 23% and 45% less rain than usual has fallen. This year an El Niño weather system has been developing over the South Pacific, something which usually tends to supress the Indian monsoon, something which may be happening in the south of the country, but northern India, Pakistan, and Nepal have all been suffering deadly floods, something which may be related to the rising global atmospheric temperatures.

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Does the Nebra Disc represent a Bronze Age supernova?

Discovered with a hoard of Bronze Aged weapons in 1999 by two metal-detectorists in a prehistoric enclosure in the Ziegelroda Forest, 60 km west of Leipzig in the German State of Saxony-Anhalt, and subsequently traded several times on the black market before coming to the notice of archaeologists, the Nebra Disc is now considered to be one of the oldest known depictions of celestial objects. 

The disc depicts a cluster of stars, which can be confidently identified as the Pleiades flanked by a disc interpreted as the Sun and a crescent interpreted as a waning Moon, against a starry background with a blue-green patina. Additional arcs are present on two edges of the disc, although these are now thought to have been added later. Organic material found with the disc has been carbon dated to 1600-2000 BC, while material adhered to one of the swords found with it has been dated to between 1600 and 1560 BC. This gives an estimated burial time for the object, although the disc is likely to be older. Its style of manufacture has been linked to the Unetice Culture, which was found in Central Europe between about 2300 and 1600 BC. 

X-ray fluorescence trace element analysis of the metals used in the disc has suggested that the copper used in its manufacture originated from  Bischofshofen in Austria, the gold of the outer crescents (thought to have been added later) probably came from the Carpathian Mountains, while the gold of the original stars and discs probably came from Cornwall. 

The disc was clearly a high value object, with considerable effort and resources going into its manufacture, and therefore is likely to have had specific meaning for its makers, but that meaning remains obscure to us today. The objects at its centre have clearly been chosen carefully, yet their conjunction is highly unlikely. A waning Moon would not occur close to a Sun-disc in nature; the Moon does occasionally pass close to, or even in front of, the Sun, but is always in the New Moon (invisible) phase, as all the phases of the Moon are driven by reflected sunlight. This has led to the conclusion that the selection of objects is purely symbolic in nature, not directly related to a specific observation.

In a paper published in the Journal of Anthropological and Archaeological Sciences on 24 March 2022, Rosario Gianluca Pizzone and Roberta Spartá of the Laboratori Nazionali del Sud at the Istituto nazionale di fisica nucleare, make the proposal that the large disc seen on the Nabra Disc does not in fact represent the Sun, but is instead a depiction of a supernova explosion.

The Nebra disc as it appears now (on display in Halle Museum of Prehistory). The Pleiades cluster shows up in the top part, amid the golden disc and the waning Moon. The solar arcs on the right and bottom of the picture were added in a post-construction phase (see text for details). Pizzone & Spartá (2022).

Pizzone and Spartá note that the large gold disc is depicted in a part of the sky (the Auriga-Taurus astersim) known to be very active in terms of stellar formation and supernova explosions (the two are connected, with the largest stars, which are the ones that undergo such explosions, having very short lives). This area contains a number of supernova remnants, and is home to the only historically recorded supernova explosion, which led to the formation of the Crab Nebula in 1054 and was recorded by Chinese scholars.

Armed with this knowledge, Pizzone and Spartá conducted a survey of the Auriga-Taurus asterism, looking for young supernova remnants which might be associated with the event depicted on the Nebra Disc. This survey uncovered five such young supernovae. The first of these, SH2 224, is estimated to be between 13 000 and 24 000 years old, and is located 4500 parsecs (1470 light years) from our Solar System. The second, SH2 221 (HB9) is estimated to be 4000-6600 years old and is roughly 800 parsecs (2600 light years) away. The third, Semeis 147, is thought to be 30 000-40 000 years old and is 1200-1500 parsecs (3900-4500 light years away). The fourth, the Crab Nebula, can be precisely dated at 966 years old, and is 2000 parsecs (6500 light years) away. The final object, IC443, is between 3000 and 30 000 years old, and located 1500 parsecs (4500 light years) from us.

Pizzone and Spartá observe that one of these supernovae, SH2 221 (HB9) has a lower age range which coincides roughly with the possible creation of the Nebra Disc. They estimate, from the size of this object and its estimated distance, that at its peak this explosion would have been as bright as the Full Moon, a striking event which would likely have been seen as being of great importance to any Bronze Age European observers. 

They further note that several stone carvings, of roughly the same age, in the Burzahom archaeological site in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India, depict stick figures observing two light-emitting objects in the sky. The precise meaning of these has also been debated, with the objects possibly being the Sun and Moon or two stars, but could also conceivably represent a supernova explosion close in the sky to the Moon.

Photograph of a stone carving from Burzahom, and drawing of the same. Joglekar et al. (2007).

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Landslide kills at least two and injures nine more in Ramban District, Jammu and Kashmir.

Two people have been confirmed dead and another nine injured following a landslide that hit the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway in Ramban District, Jammu and Kashmir, on Saturday 16 May 2020. The incident happened at about 6.15 pm local time, hitting nine vehicles on the highway, all of which are thought to have been involved in a road improvement scheme. The two victims have been identified as Raj Kumar, 25, and Khalid Hussain, 19, both local men employed on the road widening scheme. The incident blocked the road for several hours, causing a traffic jam of around 2800 vehicles.

Rescue teams search damaged vehicles for survivors following a landslide in Ramban District, Jammu and Kashmir, on 16 May 2020. ANI.

The Jammu-Srinagar National Highway is notoriously prone to landslides, particularly during the region's monsoon season, which lasts from July to September, bringing with it extremely high levels of rainfall. Landslides are a common problem after severe weather events, as excess pore water pressure can overcome cohesion in soil and sediments, allowing them to flow like liquids. Approximately 90% of all landslides are caused by heavy rainfall. However, on this occasion it appears that the landslide may have been triggered by human activity associated with a road-widening scheme which is intended to broaden the highway from its current two lanes to four.

The approximate location of the 16 May 2020 Ramban landslide. Google Maps.

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Avalanche kills six on the Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir.

Four Indian soldiers and two civilian porters have been killed in an avalanche on the northern part of the Siachen Glacier in Jammu and Kashmir, India, on Monday 18 November 2019. The casualties were part of a patrol that was hit by the avalanche at about 3.00 pm, local time, in an area at an altitude of 5800 m above sealevel. All of those caught in the avalanche were evacuated by helecopter, but only after several hours, which is likely to have been a contributing factor in the loss of life in an area where temperatures can drop to -60°C at night. Seven other soldiers are described as being in a critical condition.

The approximate location of the 18 November 2019 Siachen Glacier avalanche. Google Maps.

Avalanches are caused by the mechanical failure of snowpacks; essentially when the weight of the snow above a certain point exceeds the carrying capacity of the snow at that point to support its weight. This can happen for two reasons, because more snow falls upslope, causing the weight to rise, or because snow begins to melt downslope, causing the carrying capacity to fall. Avalanches may also be triggered by other events, such as Earthquakes or rockfalls. Contrary to what is often seen in films and on television, avalanches are not usually triggered by loud noises. Because snow forms layers, with each layer typically occurring due to a different snowfall, and having different physical properties, multiple avalanches can occur at the same spot, with the failure of a weaker layer losing to the loss of the snow above it, but other layers below left in place - to potentially fail later.

  Diagrammatic representation of an avalanche, showing how layering of snow contributes to these events. Expedition Earth.

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Landslide kills five in Doda District, Jammu and Kashmir.

Five people have died and another nine have been injured after a landslide in the Doda District of Jammu and Kashmir State, India, on Wednesday 24 April 2019. The incident happened on the road between Gandoh and Thathri, with all of those killed or injured travelling in a minibus that was hit by a large boulder. The dead have been named as Mansoor Ahmad and his wife Gulshan, Mudasir Ahmad, Kamlesh Devi and Shakeela Begum. The incident comes following days of heavy rain in the area, probably associated with exceptionally hot weather conditions over the Indian Ocean, leading to high precipitation in areas of the Himalayas normally dry at this time of year. Landslides are a common problem after severe weather events, as excess pore water pressure can overcome cohesion in soil and sediments, allowing them to flow like liquids. Approximately 90% of all landslides are caused by heavy rainfall.

Vehicle hit by a large rock during a landslide in Doda District, Jammu and Kashmir, on Wednesday 24 April 2019. Daily Excelsior.

The Jammu and Kashmir region is extremely prone to landslides, due to a number of active faults in the area, these being driven by the northward movement of the Indian Plate, which is pushing into Eurasia at a rate of 40 mm a year. This causes earthquakes on both plates, as well as the folding and uplift that has created the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. Typically this is more of a problem in the monsoon season in July and August, when rainfall often exceeds 650 mm per month in many areas, though landslips can occur all year round.

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