Five-year-old girl swallowed by sinkhole in Cape Town, South Africa.

A five-year-old girl has been rescued after being swallowed by a sinkhole at Wetland in the Khayelitsha Township of Cape Town, South Africa, on Friday 3 July 2006. The girl, who has not been named, was reportedly visiting her aunt in the area, when a section of road collapsed beneath her, leading her to fall into the hole and be covered over with sand. Local residents acted quickly, and were able to dig her out with handtools before serious harm occurred. 

A sinkhole which opened up in the Wetlands area of Khayelitsha on Friday 3 July 2026, swallowing a five-year-old girl. Siyavuya Khaya/Cape Argus.

Sinkholes are generally caused by water eroding soft limestone or unconsolidated deposits from beneath, causing a hole that works its way upwards and eventually opening spectacularly at the surface. Where there are unconsolidated deposits at the surface they can infill from the sides, apparently swallowing objects at the surface, including people, without trace.

However, on this occasion the problem is thought to have been caused by a bulk sewer pipeline which lies beneath the area. The informal settlement at Wetland has been built over this pipeline, which is in a poor state of maintenance, in need of upgrading, and has suffered a number of sinkhole-related problems as sections of the pipeline have collapsed. Officials from the City of Cape Town, which is responsible for the pipeline, report that they expect more collapses on the pipeline, which they struggle to access because of the presence of the settlement.

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Are all known specimens of Homo naledi female?

In 2013 a large number of skeletons belonging to a previously unknown Hominin species were discovered in a newly discovered chamber within the Rising Star Cave System in the Cradle of Humankind at Maropeng, South Africa. This new chamber was named the Dinaledi Chamber (Chamber of the Stars in Sotho), and the new Hominin species was given the name Homo naledi ('naledi' meaning 'star'). A number of subsequent specimens assigned to the same species have been found in nearby chambers. Some of the specimens have been dated to between 335 000 and 236 000 years before the present, although it is possible that the total chronological range of all the specimens is longer.

Homo naledi is an unusual species, with a mosaic of modern and archaic traits. It has a small brain size, more comparable to that of an Australopithecene than an Archaic Human. The bones of the trunk and shoulders of Homo naledi also resemble those of Australopithecenes, yet the hands, lower limbs, and face of the species are far more Human. 

A recent study of the teeth of Homo naledi found that they showed remarkably little variation, and concluded that this might indicate that all known specimens might belong to a single sex. However, estimating the sex of a specimen on bone-or-tooth morphology is a remarkably difficult process, particularly where there isn't a dimorphism (i.e. two consistently different forms) within the known specimens of that species.

Sex determination can also sometimes be achieved using ancient DNA recovered from specimens. However, DNA, while this has been used on some ancient Hominins from cool climates, DNA tends to degrade rapidly in warmer environments, such as South Africa.

In a paper published in the journal Cell on 24 June 2026, a team of scientists led by Palesa Madupe of the Globe Institute at the University of Copenhagen, the Human Evolution Research Institute at the University of Cape Town, and the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, present the results of a study in which they assessed the sexes of all known specimens of Homo naledi using palaeoproteomic analysis of dental enamel.

The study focuses on amelogenins, a type of protein which helps to direct the mineralisation of tooth enamel. This the DNA which is used to make this protein is principally found on the X-chromosome, however, unlike many other genes, this has not been lost from the Y-chromosome, with the effect that there are two distinct forms of amelogenin, Amelogenin X, which drives from the version of the gene on the X-chromosome, and which is produced by all Humans, and Amelogenin Y, which is derived from the version of the gene on the Y-chromosome, and which is found only in males (albeit only making up about 10% of the total. This tool has previously been used to determine the sexes of other Pleistocene Hominins, making it a realistic choice for establishing the same in Homo naledi. 

Madupe et al. began by taking surface etchings from four teeth, then processing them. All of the samples yielded the Amelogenin X variant, but none produced Amelogenin Y, indicating that all four were female. The samples were then subjected to a more destructive round of testing, crushing the teeth completely and then analysing the whole sample. This yielded identical results, indicating that the less destructive test was sufficiently reliable.

Location and layout of the Rising Star cave system. (A) Map of South Africa zoomed in (insert), showing the position of the area known as the Cradle of Humankind, approximately 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, where the Rising Star cave system is located. (B) The Rising Star cave system within the Cradle of Humankind. (C) Layout of the Rising Star System and the Dinaledi subsystem and Lesedi Chamber, where all the specimens were recovered, and the photos of the four Homo naledi specimens initially micro-destructively sampled by acid etching, then sectioned for enamel growth analysis and subsequently sampled destructively. Madupe et al. (2026).

Following this success, Madupe et al. carried out an analysis of another nineteen Homo naledi teeth, using the non-destructive method (i.e. using surface etchings, not whole teeth). This included all 20 known Homo naledi specimens within the experiment. The Amelogenin X variant was again found in seventeen specimens, while the Amelogenin Y variant was again not detected. Two specimens yielded such low protein levels that they were excluded from the study, although these specimens also yeilded Amelogenin X variant at low levels and no Amelogenin Y variant. The Amelogenin Y variant was detected in all the controls used for the study, which comprised fifteen male Homo sapiens, two male Paranthropus robustus, a male Australopithecus africanus, a male Denisovan, and a male Homo antecessor. 

The Amelogenin X protein found in Homo naledi showed no variation, something which would be considered extra-ordinary in a modern Human population, suggesting that either the species Homo naledi was remarkably genetically homogeneous, or that all of the individuals were very closely related. The individuals come from locations up to 145 m from one another within a complex cave system, and are not thought to have been deposited at the same time, making the former diagnosis more likely.

Madupe et al. identify eighteen confidently identified informative single amino acid polymorphisms on the Hominid Amelogenin X protein, two of which are notably different in Homo naledi and Modern Humans. One of these, a phenylalanine amino acid molecule at position 141 on the protein, is the same as that seen in present day Strepsirrhini (Lemurs, Galagos, Pottos, and Lorises) and Cercopithecidae (Old World Monkeys), but differs from the position in Modern Humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, all of which have a tyrosine amino acid at this point. The second, a proline amino acid at position 635, is the same character state as in all living non-Human Primates, but differs from the situation in Modern Humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans, all of which have an alanine amino acid at this point. This location has not been recovered in any Homo antecessor, Homo erectus, or Australopithecus africanus specimen to date, but has been identified in two Paranthropus robustus specimens, both of which both had a proline amino acid in this position.

Analysis of the Amelogenin protein has previously been shown to be a useful way to identify the sex of a variety of Pliocene and Pleistocene Hominins. Application of this test to Homo naledi failed to identify any males among the 20 individuals currently known, nor any intra-specific variation on the protein, both highly unusual states. Notably, the study included individual UW 102a, popularly known as 'Neo' (pronounced ney-oh), the most complete Homo naledi specimen known, who has previously identified as male on the basis of a relatively robust skeleton (fortunately, the name Neo, which is Sotho and means 'gift', can be applied to either sex). 

The cranium of Homo naledi specimen popularly known as 'Neo'. Nutcracker Man.

Since the method has previously been applied to individuals from South Africa as much as two million years old, and all of the male controls used within the study were identified as such, Madupe et al. do not believe there was anything wrong with the methodology being used. On this basis, they conclude that the Amelogenin Y variant was not present in any of the specimens, either because they were all female, or because of a mutation which prevented the expression of this protein in male Homo naledi. However, if the previous study on the dentition of Homo naledi is taken into account, it does raise the likelihood of all specimens being female.

Mutations which lead to the deletion or non-expression of the Amelogenin Y protein are known. They are more common in some Human populations than others (in one population in Pakistan, 8% of men did not produce this protein), and has been observed in a Neanderthal individual from Siberia. However, such mutations are typically extremely rare. 

Since there is no reason to believe the sex ratio in living Homo naledi populations was anything other than 1:1, a random accumulation of 20 female specimens is incredibly unlikely. However, such a ratio is not inconsistent with the previously-made suggestion that the presence of Homo naledi specimens in the Rising Star Cave System may have been the result of deliberate mortuary practices rather than a random accumulation. 

The Dinaledi Chamber is notoriously hard to access, to the extent that following its discovery, lead scientist Lee Berger assembled a team of physically small female palaeontologists and archaeologists with caving experience in order to carry our excavation work there. In theory, the cave could have been equally inaccessible to male Homo naledi, leading to a bias in the preservation of individuals there. However, ten of the known individuals are juveniles who died before their second molar erupted, an age at which it is unlikely that sex-related size-differences would have been sufficient to prevent males entering the site.

Exclusively female funerary sites are not known from any Modern Human population. The closest we have are the Neolithic Panoría site in Spain and Edcoural Cave site in Portugal, where females make up 70% and 67% of the population respectively, something which has been thought to reflect the greater importance of females in a matrilineal society. However, the Neolithic inhabitants of Iberia were still Modern Humans, very different to Homo neledi, a Pleistocene Hominin not interpreted to have been closely related to us, and the two groups cannot be expected to have had similar funerary practices (if Homo naledi indeed had these at all).

The expression of archaic amino acid variants in Homo naledi further supports the idea that this species was not closely related to Modern Humans, although the absence of data from archaic Homo species, such as Homo erectus or Homo antecessor, makes it hard to work out how distant a relationship this implies. Gathering such data for more Human and Australopithecene species may help to resolve the phylogentic position of Homo naledi. The less destructive sampling method used by Madupe et al. in this study should make such sampling easier that the earlier form of this technique, which required the destruction of whole teeth, a highly precious resource for extinct Hominins.

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An embryonic Synapsid from the Early Triassic of South Africa.

 The persistence of egg-laying in modern Monotremes has led evolutionary biologists to conclude that this is likely to have been the ancestral state in the Synapsids, the group from which the Mammals arose. However, fossil evidence for this has been surprisingly absent. The earliest known potential fossil amniotic egg comes from the Permian of South America, and has been attributed to a Mesosaurid Sauropsid (a group not closely related to Synapsids of Mammals). This specimen preserves an immature skeleton curled in a position consistent with having been in an egg at the time of death, but no actual eggshell (not altogether surprising, as the earliest amniote eggs are not predicted to have been mineralised). The earliest amniotic egg fossils with both embryonic remains and eggshell come from Sauropodomorph dinosaurs from the Early Jurassic of Gondwana. Some potential eggs associated with Synapsid Pelycosaurs from the Early Permian of North America are not considered to be reliable, as neither embryos nor shell structures are preserved.

The Late Triassic-Early Jurassic Elliot Formation of South Africa's Karoo Basin has produced numerous Dinosaur egg fossils with embryos, as well as the skeletal remains of many non-Mammalian Cynodonts, something which has led to questions about whether Permo-Triassic Synapsids laid eggs at all. This is a serious consideration; Synapsids, particularly groups such as Lystrosaurus and Diictodon, are extremely common in the Permian and Triassic of the Karoo, with perinate specimens (specimens thought to have died around the time of birth or hatching) being found here and elsewhere, but no eggs are known. The preservation of Dinosaur eggs in the Karoo suggests there was no taphonomic process here producing a bias against the preservation of eggs, and palaeontologists have been active in the Karoo Basin for over 180 years, suggesting that if such eggs were present, there should have been a good chance of their being found. Egg-laying and bearing live young are found in closely related Snakes and Lizards, and it appears that this group has been able to switch back-and-forth between these conditions fairly easily. It is therefore conceivably possible that Synapsids developed the ability to bear live young very early in their history, and that Monotremes have secondarily switched back to egg-laying.

However, this has wider implications than Synapsid palaeontology. Current theories on the origin of lactation in Mammals have been built on the assumption that this preceeded the switch to live-birth (largely because Monotremes produce both eggs and milk). It is now generally accepted that the purpose of lactation was not originally to feed the young, but rather started as skin secretions used to either moisturise the eggs, provide nutrients, protect them against fungi and bacterial infections, or for hormonal signalling through the egg membrane. Should it be found that the Synapsids from which Mammals evolved bore live young, then these theories would have to be abandoned.

In a paper published in the journal PLoS One on 9 April 2026, Julien Benoit of the Evolutionary Studies Institute at the University of the Witwatersrand, Vincent Fernandez of the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, and Jennifer Botha of the Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences at the University of the Witwatersrand, describe three perinate specimens of the Dicynodont Synapsid Lystrosaurus from the Early Triassic of Xhariep Municipal District in Free State Province, South Africa, one of which appears to have been preserved within an egg.

The specimens examined are the three smallest specimens attributed to Lystrosaurus. They include BP/1/4011, an isolated skull measuring 43.0 mm, discovered by James Kitching in the upper Palingkloof Member of the Balfour Formation at Orangia on Tweefontein 508, BP/1/9332, an almost complete articulated skeleton with a skull length of 44.0 mm, discovered by Brandon Stuart in the upper Palingkloof Member of the Balfour Formation at Nooitgedacht 68 Farm near Spitskop, and NMQR 3636, a complete skeleton with a skull length of 34.5 mm, found by John Nyaphuli at Rheeboksfontein 5 Farm in 2008, probably from the upper Palingkloof Member of the Balfour Formation or the lower Katberg Formation.Each of these fossils was a scanned at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble, France, with three dimensional models being reconstructed with the Avizo Software Package.

The isolated skull BP/1/4011 was described by Kitching as the smallest known skull attributed to Lystrosaurus in 1964, and attributed to either Lystrosaurus murrayi or Lystrosaurus curvatus by a study in 2006. Benoit et al. are more cautious, attributing it to Lystrosaurus sp. but suggesting it shows affinities to Lystrosaurus curvatus.

The first of the articulated skeletons, BP/1/9332, is considered to be an early juvenile of Lystrosaurus sp., with affinities to Lystrosaurus murrayi. It is preserved in a splayed out position, similar to that of most larger Lystrosaurus specimens from the Karoo Basin, with most bones perfectly articulated, and synchrotron images show that no loose elements are preserved in the surrounding matrix. It appears to be the most developmentally advanced of the three specimens, because its splenials are co-ossified at the mandibular symphysis, although its occipital and basicranial bones remain loose. From the splayed out position in which it was found, Benoit et al. determine that it had hatched before dying, probably moving some distance from its hatching site before death.

Photograph of BP/1/9332 in dorsal view. Benoit et al. (2026).

The final specimen, NMQR 3636, is also considered by Benoit et al. to be an early juvenile of Lystrosaurus sp., with affinities to Lystrosaurus murrayi. However, unlike BP/1/9332, this specimen is curled into a fetal position, consistent with having been within an egg at the time of death. It also appears to be the most developmentally immature of the specimens, lacking tusk buds in its maxillary alveolae, something present in both the other specimens, or a mesethmoid bone, the structure that supports the olfactory bulbs in life, which is again present in the other two specimens. 

Most notably, the lower jaw of NMQR 3636 has an incompletely co-ossified symphyseal suture between the two paired bones in the lower jaw. This is completely co-ossified in both the other specimens, as well as in modern beaked Amniotes such as Turtles and Birds at the time of hatching. Modern Monotremes do hatch with an unfinished intermandibular symphysis, but these feed on milk provided by their mothers for some time after hatching, something Lystrosaurus is not thought likely to have been able to produce. 

Based upon this, Benoit et al. conclude that the early developmental stage of the skeleton, combined with a posture which would be expected of a perinate prior to hatching and a jaw which had not developed to the stage where it could feed on the hard foodstuffs likely to have been consumed by juvenile Lystrosaurus. is indicative of an Animal which died within the egg and was subsequently preserved, albeit without preservation of the egg itself.

Specimen NMQR 3636 in left lateral view. (a) Photograph of the specimen; (b) 3D digital reconstruction of the segmented bones; (c) live reconstruction by artist Sophie Vrard. Colour code for (b): vertebral elements in shades of green, ribs in blue, forelimb elements in red, femur in yellow, pelvic girdle elements in grey, skull in light red, mandible in light orange. Benoit et al. (2026).

Based upon the position of the embryo, it is estimated that the original egg was 3.65 cm long and 2.75 cm in diameter, with an internal mass of 115 cm³ and a mass of 115 g. While size estimates for adult Lystrosaurus vary, this is clearly larger compared to the size of an adult than either living Monotremes or most non-Avian Reptiles, although comparatively smaller than the eggs of Birds. This is probably indicative of a large yolk, which can feed the embryonic Animal for longer, allowing it to develop further within the egg. 

Modern Monotremes produce small eggs compared to the size of an adult, which contain comparatively little yolk material. This is possible because the young hatch at an early developmental stage, and are then nourished with milk. Interestingly, the Jurassic Tritylodontid Cynodont Kayentatherium produced eggs which were even smaller compared to the size of an adult. While Kayentatherium has been reconstructed as being quite Reptile-like in physiology, the small egg size could be a sign that it was capable of a form of lactation. It has also been suggested that Kayentatherium probably had hair, something which is known to be linked genetically to the formation of mammary glands (which produce milk), and it has also been shown that there is a genetic link between the reduction in egg yolk production and the ability to produce milk. All of which suggests that Kayentatherium may have been more Mammal-like than previously reconstructed, and that the appearance of the ability to produce milk may have been closely linked to the emergence of the Mammaliamorpha.

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Sibling rivalry in wild Chacma Baboons.

Jealousy occurs in Humans when we perceive our relationship with a person important to us is threatened by the actions of someone else. This is a complex emotion, which often manifests in attempts to disrupt social interactions that we find threatening. Whether jealousy is a uniquely Human emotion is less clear, as it can be hard to judge the genuine emotional state of non-Human Animals, at least in part due to the dangers of anthropomorphising behaviours that resemble Human emotional traits.

Non-Human Primates would appear to be a good starting point for those wishing to study jealousy outside our species, but very few studies appear to have been done in this area, and all of those on sexual jealousy in captive Primates held in unnatural conditions.

In Humans, one area which has been extensively studied is sibling rivalry among children. Human mothers are unusual in that they often care for multiple offspring of different ages at the same time, leading to forms of competition for parental attention and resources which do not occur in most Animals. Intense rivalries can develop between child siblings when they perceive that they are being treated differently, sometimes leading to conflicts which extend into adulthood. Such rivalries are most likely to develop when children are the same sex and close in age.

Such rivalries between siblings of different ages have not been studied in non-Human Animals. Instead, research has concentrated on competition between siblings produced in large clutches or broods, where they are part of a group reliant on parental provisioning until reaching independence. There have also been some studies concerning mother-child competition for resources in monotocous species (species that have one young at a time), plus a few studies looking at species in which older siblings cooperate in the rearing of young. 

Monotocous Animals with long child-rearing periods, including many Primates, form an intermediate group between Humans and polytocous species (species that have produce many offspring in a single clutch or litter). In such species different aged siblings interact with one-another and their parent(s) on a daily basis, and competition between siblings has the potential to have a significant impact upon fitness. Siblings will compete with one another in ways which they do not compete with non-siblings, requiring maternal care and attention rather than just foraging competitively. 

In a paper published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B on 11 February 2026, Axelle Delaunay of the Institute of Evolutionary Science of Montpellier, and the Tsaobis Baboon Project in the Tsaobis Nature Park in Namibia, Vittoria Roatti, also of the Tsaobis Baboon Project, and of the Department of Anthropology at University College London, Rose Ellis and Punaete Kandjii, again of the Tsaobis Baboon Project, Alecia Carter, again of the Tsaobis Baboon Project and the Department of Anthropology at University College London, and of the Gobabeb Research Institute, Guy Cowlishaw of the Tsaobis Baboon Project, the Gobabeb Research Institute, and the Institute of Zoology, Marie Charpentier, also of the Institute of Evolutionary Science of Montpellier, and Élise Huchard, once again of the Institute of Evolutionary Science of Montpellier, the Tsaobis Baboon Project, and the Gobabeb Research Institute, present the results of a study into the role of jealousy in driving sibling competition in wild Chacma Baboons, Papio ursinus, a monotocous, social Primate.

Chacma Baboons live in matrilineal societies in which males disperse to new groups around puberty, while females remain within their birth groups, inheriting their mother's dominance rank. On average, females produce one young every two years, with growing Baboons are weened after about two years, but have a long developmental period and have long-lasting strong bonds to their mother, expressed through grooming relationships in which preference of grooming partner is an important signifier of relationship status.

In order to do this, they looked at instances in which young Baboons interrupted their mother when she was grooming a sibling. They did this to test three hypotheses, that young Baboons interrupted on such occasions because they were jealous, because they wished for attention from their mother themselves, or because they wanted to interact with their sibling. Theoretically, a jealous Baboon would interrupt even if it was not likely to gain any reward, a Baboon wanting attention from its mother would only interrupt if this was likely to result in it getting such attention, and a Baboon wishing to interact with a sibling would only do so if it was likely to gain such interaction. 

Theoretically, a Baboon which was jealous or wanted to play with a sibling would be more likely to approach its mother when she was grooming that sibling, while a Baboon simply wanting its mothers attention would be most likely to approach her when she was unoccupied. Furthermore, the jealousy hypothesis suggests that a Baboon would be more likely to interrupt its mother if she was grooming a sibling which tended to monopolise her attention, or otherwise appeared to be a favourite. This would fit with the patterns observed in Human children. 

It was also predicted that, in Baboons, jealousy would be more prevalent among same-sex siblings, and in particular between sisters, since younger sisters can come to outrank older sisters with maternal support. Since males leave the troop at puberty and do not rely on their mothers for social status, they were predicted to be less prone to jealousy. 

Furthermore, it was predicted that Baboons seeking maternal care would be more likely to interrupt when their mother was grooming a younger sibling, as these tend to be easier to displace, and that females may be more inclined to interrupt when their mother was grooming a male sibling, as mother-daughter social bonds are stronger than mother-son bonds.

If Baboons interrupt grooming because they want to play with a sibling, then males interrupting when other males were being groomed would be predicted to be the more frequent occurrence, as young males play with other young males more frequently than females play with females, or young Baboons play with members of the opposite sex. This would also lead to more interruptions when the Baboon being groomed was close in age to the Baboon interrupting. 

Dalauney et al. studied Chacma Baboons from two well habituated troops (L and J) in the Tsaobis Nature Park, which lies on the edge of the Namib Desert in Namibia, between August and December 2021. The Baboons were followed from dawn to dusk each day by trained observers who were able to identify all Baboons in the troops, including infants. Every family group which included at least a mother and two offspring was included in the study. This comprised eight families in each troop, with between two and five offspring, with a total of 28 female and 21 male young Baboons, ranging in age from six days to 8.9 years. This included adult females, but not adult and subadult males still living in the maternal group, due to the limited amount of interaction these males have with their mothers. 

Female Baboons were observed for five minute intervals when they were either grooming one of their offspring, or resting, and all interruptions were recorded, as well as whether this was be a sibling or non-sibling of the Baboon being groomed. Interruptions could be aggressive, such as attacking, chasing, biting, pushing, slaping, threatening, displacing, or supplanting; affiliative behaviours such as body contact, come-here faces, grunting, jumping on one groomer, lipsmacking, playing, presenting, or touching; tantrum behaviours such as gecks, complaint grunts, or other screams; maternal care solicitations, such as soliciting access to the nipple, soliciting grooming, suckling, or starting a triadic grooming session with the groomers; or simply approaching within a metre of a grooming pair. Under this analysis, a very broad range of behaviours were treated as 'interruptions', the object being to understand the motives of young Baboons in approaching their mothers. As such, focusing only on agonistic behaviours or effective disruption would only provide a partial picture of sibling interference, and might not pick up on some relationships, for example if younger siblings were afraid to behave aggressively towards older siblings being groomed by their mothers, but still found other ways to gain her attention. 

Having come up with a definition of 'interruptions', Dalauney et al. then looked at the outcome of these interruptions, grouping them into three basic categories; instances where the grooming continues, instances where the grooming stops, and instances in which the interrupter replaces one of the Baboons in the grooming relationship. In the final case, they recorded which Baboons were in the new grooming relationship (i.e. mother and interrupting youngster, or interrupting youngster and previously involved youngster). Finally, Dalauney et al. recorded every youngster within 10 m of their mother at the start of a five minute session. If the mother broke off from her original activity (grooming or resting) to engage in some other activity during the five minutes of the observation, that observation was abandoned. Each family group was monitored for no more than five minutes each hour. 

A juvenile male just approached and initiated body contact with his younger sister being groomed by their mother. This interference did not interrupt the ongoing grooming interaction, nor allow him to groom with his mother or his sibling. Axelle Delaunay in Dalauney et al. (2026).

Dalauney et al. found that young Baboons were significantly more likely to interrupt their mother when she was grooming a sibling than when she was resting, which predicted by the theories that the young Baboon was jealous or wanted the attention of its sibling, but not by the theory that the primary motivator was gaining the attention of the mother. This was unaffected by the presence of other siblings within 10 m (which was predicted to make interruptions less likely if a young Baboon was looking for a sibling to play with), nor was it affected by the sex of the youngsters, nor the social status of those involved. Baboons did become less likely to interrupt their mother grooming a sibling as they got older.

Younger Baboons were more likely to interrupt their mother when she was grooming a sibling, but this was apparently unaffected by the age-difference between them and the sibling being groomed. However, older siblings were twice as likely to interrupt their mother when she was grooming a younger sibling, and all Baboons were more likely to interrupt their mother when she was grooming a sibling of the same sex, with males more likely to interrupt when a brother was being groomed than females were to interrupt when a sister was being groomed. If one of the mother's offspring was perceived as a favourite, and received more grooming attention than its siblings, then those siblings were more likely to interrupt when it was being groomed. The age of this favourite did not appear to matter. This again supports the theory that interrupting Baboons were driven primarily by jealousy. 

Of 501 instances of Baboons interrupting their mother while she was grooming a sibling, 95 instances (19%) resulted in grooming being broken off (the predicted desired outcome of the jealousy model), while in 44 cases (9%) resulted in the interrupter entering into a grooming session with the mother (the predicted desired outcome of the maternal attention-seeking model), and only 12 (2%) resulted in the interrupter entering into a grooming session with the sibling (the predicted desired outcome of the sibling attention-seeking model). Entering into a grooming relationship with the mother or a sibling did not necessarily disrupt the original grooming relationship, as Baboons can form grooming triads. Data was not initially collected on interrupters entering into play relationships with the sibling being groomed (another possible outcome of the sibling attention-seeking model), but only 11 instances of this were observed, limiting support for this hypothesis. Thus, while most attempts at interrupting a mother grooming a sibling failed to disrupt that activity, they were significantly more likely to cause that grooming session to break off than to allow the interrupting Baboon to enter into a grooming relationship with one of the originally involved Baboons, supporting the hypothesis that the main reason for such interruptions was jealousy.

Interference are rarely successful, but more often disrupt the ongoing grooming than they grant access to maternal or sibling grooming. Proportion of successful interference as defined under the jealousy hypothesis (i.e. the interference effectively disrupts the ongoing mother–sibling grooming, in pink), the care-seeking hypothesis (i.e. the interferer gains access to maternal grooming, in orange), and the sibling-seeking hypothesis (i.e. the interferer gains access to sibling grooming, in yellow). Note that interferer do not need to disrupt the ongoing grooming to gain access to maternal or sibling grooming, as interference leading to triadic grooming interactions was also considered successful. The blue bar represents all the interferences that were not successful under any hypothesis, i.e. when the grooming kept going and the interferer did not get access to either of the groomers. Dalauney et al. (2026).

Dalauney et al.'s study lends to support to the idea that young Baboons interrupt their mothers when they are grooming siblings out of jealousy. They were more likely to interrupt their mothers when they were grooming siblings than when she was apparently available. They were also more likely to interrupt when the sibling being groomed was younger than them, of the same sex, or perceived as their mothers favourite. This interference appeared to be largely aimed at the mothers rather than their siblings. In Baboon societies, mothers are a more useful social connection than siblings, as they provide support to female offspring throughout their lives, and to male offspring for as long as they remain within their maternal group, whereas brothers will leave the group at some point, and sisters will shift the focus of their support to their own offspring when they start to have them.

Younger siblings were preferentially targeted over older siblings. This may be because younger Baboons tend to monopolise their mothers attention, or because they are less likely to respond aggressively to such interruptions. There is a lack of comparative studies of this behaviour in Humans, where only the jealousy of older siblings towards younger siblings has been explored, and then only in the context of age difference between siblings in modern Western societies.

What has been recorded in both modern Western societies and non-Human Primates is that behaviour predicted to be caused by jealousy is more commonly directed at younger siblings, and siblings of the same sex (which implies that in both cases offspring of different sexes are competing for slightly different maternal resources, and that siblings of the same sex are therefore a greater threat). In Baboons and Humans, young males engage in more rough-and-tumble play than young females, which might lead to a desire to play with siblings becoming a reason to disrupt interactions between those siblings and their mothers. Dalauney et al. believe that by looking at a wide range of interrupting actions and their outcomes, that their study has screened for this possibility

Dalauney et al. believe that the tendency of Baboons to interrupt when their mothers are grooming a sibling perceived as a favourite is important. This matches the finding in Humans that children who feel disfavoured by their parents report higher levels of conflict with both parents and siblings, often with lifelong consequences. In Humans, siblings are less likely to be jealous if they perceive that siblings receiving different treatment are doing so because they have different needs. Non-Human Primates are known to be able to track relationships between their close family and social partners, as well as those between third parties. Dalauney et al.'s findings suggest that Chacma Baboons are able to judge the strength of their maternal bond compared to that of their siblings, although the cognitive ability needed to do this and the perception of fairness in Baboons will need to be the subject of further studies. Negative responses to uneven food rewards have previously been recorded in several Primate species, as well as Domestic Dogs and Corvids. Whether Primates can assess maternal care in the same way is still unclear, but the ability to do so would clearly have implications for family dynamics.

One of the most important questions that arises from Dalauney et al.'s study is whether there is any benefit to a young Baboon in simply disrupting its mother grooming a sibling, and whether there is any more general advantage to jealousy. Interrupting activity was shown to be twice as likely to result in the mother abandoning grooming of a sibling as it was to result in the interrupter entering into a grooming session with the mother, and entering into such a grooming bout does not actually require the mother to abandon the other youngster, as Baboons can form grooming triads. Notably, the most common outcome was that nothing changed, i.e. the mother continued to groom the sibling she had been grooming when interrupted. This suggests that any benefits associated with jealousy may be complex and time-delayed, particularly if young Baboons are able to manage their emotional state sufficiently to refrain from an activity unlikely to pay off. Any adaptive benefits of jealous behaviour are likely to change over a lifetime, which should also alter their expression. There is less advantage to a Baboon monopolising its mothers time and attention as it becomes older and more independent, able to find its own resources and make its own social connections. Under these circumstances, sibling connections might become more important than maternal connections. In strictly evolutionary terms (i.e. the passing on of genes), it may be advantageous to an older juvenile Baboon to stifle jealous instincts in order to let a younger sibling have more time with its mother.

Ultimately, whether we are Human or Baboon, our emotions are a private matter, confined within our heads, which others can only judge by our actions. It is therefore possible that, when judging the emotions of another species, that we anthropomorphise their motivations, and provide emotional explanations for actions which have been determined by entirely different biological pathways. However, there is a growing body of evidence coming from a wide range of taxa, including Primates, Ungulates, and Corvids, that individuals will try to interfere with a close partners interactions with others, apparently in order to protect a valuable social relationship. Most studies have not attempted to evaluate the emotional underpinning of such actions, but these responses clearly correspond to what we would call jealousy in Humans. Dalauney et al. suggest that the role of emotions in managing social relationships in non-Human Animals has been underestimated, despite the fact that the primary function of emotions is to provide a way for individuals to act upon external stimuli. Jealousy is a social emotion, something which helps us to navigate complex social environments, and comparisons of Human and non-Human responses to similar social stimuli can potentially unlock ways to understand the emotional lives of Animals. 

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A cremation from the Early Holocene of Malawi.

All modern Human societies feel the need to dispose of the dead in specific, often highly ritualised, ways, and this appears to have been the case for much of the history of our species, and potentially other members of the genus Homo. Cremation is an effective way to achieve this, transforming the recognisable remains of a member of the community into a small amount of ash and calcined bone fragments in a relatively short period of time. However, this process also requires the effort and co-ordination to build a funeral pyre of sufficient size, and does not appear to have become common or widespread until the Middle Holocene.

The oldest known assemblage of burned Human remains comes from Lake Mungo in New South Wales and have been dated to about 40 000 years before the present, although these remains appear to have gone through a multi-stage ritual process which included burning, rather than being a single cremation event as the main way to deal with the remains. The oldest evidence of a body being burned on a pyre comes from a site called Xaasaa Na′ (Upward Sun River) in the Alaskan Arctic, where a child of about three years, who was burned about 11 500 years ago. The oldest known burned remains in Africa are about 7500 years old and come from Egypt, but it is unclear whether these were deliberately cremated. The oldest known evidence for deliberate cremation in Africa comes from Njoro River Cave in Kenya, and is only about 3300 years old.

In a paper published in the journal Science Advances on 1 January 2026, a team of scientists led by Jessica Cerezo-Román of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Oklahoma present evidence for a deliberate cremation, from the Hora 1 archaeological site at the foot of Mount Hora in the Mzimba District of Northern Malawi.

Mount Hora is a 110 m high granite inselberg (isolated hill) rising above the Kasitu River Valley, which forms a distinctive regional landmark. The Hora 1 archaeological site is a rock shelter at the base of this hill, opening to the east and incorporating a flat dry area of about 80 m². This site is easily accessed from all directions, and contains no enclosed areas which could act as a natural furnace. No other natural rock shelters could be found in the region. Hora 1 has produced a record of Human occupation stretching over more than 21 000 years, and appears to have been used for mortuary practices between about 16 000 years ago and about 8000 years ago.

HOR-1 site (11°39′S, 33°39′E; 1470 m above mean sea level, white stipples) relative to published excavated Later Stone Age (LSA) sites. Light green in inset outlines the Zambezian Biome. Cluster of sites near Mpunzi (or Mphunzi) Mountain includes six additional sites, three with human remains (Mtuzi, Changoni Bible School, and Chencherere II). Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

This site was first excavated by Desmond Clark and William Rangeley in the 1950s, who excavated an area of 7-8 m² (Clark and Rangeley did not record measurements of the area they excavated, but did take photographs, which have been used to reconstruct the extent of their work). These excavations produced the almost complete remains of two adult Humans, HOR-1 (or UTC-242), a male directly dated to between 9081 and 8725 years before the present, and Hora 2 (or UTC-243), a female directly dated to between 8172 and 7875 years before the present. Both of these skeletons have yielded ancient DNA, suggesting a relationship to modern hunter-gatherer populations in Southern Africa.

Between 2016 and 2019, the Malawi Ancient Lifeways and Peoples Project carried out further excavations at the site, removing and sieving 7.8 m³ of sediment from two blocks which produced about 46 500 objects, including the almost incomplete skeletons of two male infants (Kahora 1 and Kahora 2), which have been indirectly dated (i.e. dated from material found with them, not directly from the skeletal material) to about 14 000 and about 16 000 years before the present, and which have also yielded ancient DNA, as well as fragmentary remains attributed to at least four additional adults (Hora 4 to Hora 7) and five additional non-adults (Kahora 2 to Kahora 3), as well as numerous animal remains. Examination of these fragmentary remains has suggested that they may have been subjected to complex mortuary practices, including secondary burials (i.e. burials either after being buried once and then excavated, or after having been either left unburied for an extensive period, or having been subjected to ritual behaviours which substantially altered the remains), which may have included ritual token-taking.

Views of HOR-1. (A) Plan view of the HOR-1 site georectified onto drone imagery, showing the open overhang, accessibility, and Malawi Ancient Lifeways and Peoples Project (MALPP) excavation Area I and II. (B) View from the north of the open site access. (C) Plan view of the Malawi Ancient Lifeways and Peoples Project Area I excavations, Kahora 1 and Kahora 2 infant burials, and Hora 3 remains, with the outline of the original 1950 excavations and position of the Hora 2 skeleton by Clark and Rangely, reconstructed using an archival site photograph. Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Cerezo-Román et al. report the discovery of a large ash feature at Hora 1, along with an associated set of remains attributed to a single cremated adult, who they designate as Hora 3. Hora 3 is calculated to have been chronologically intermediate between Hora 2 and Kahora 1. As such it appears to form part of a genetically continuous population which lived in the area across the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary, although (unsurprisingly) it was not possible to extract DNA from the cremated remains.

The 'ash feature' forms a large cemented block, dated to about 9500 years before the present, which overlies a Pleistocene sediment sequence which begins 17 000 years ago and ends about 12 000 years ago, and is overlain by younger Early Holocene deposits. At the core of this feature they found a set of Human remains identified as 'Cluster 1), which lie on top of an ash layer 10-15 cm thick, and roughly 2.5 m by 1.5 m in extent. Below this are a series of deeper lenses of consolidated ashes, charcoal, and rubified sediment, together referred to as the 'Lower Ash', which are interpreted as evidence for a series of consecutive burn events at the same location.

The Cluster 1 remains sit on top of a layer of incompletely combusted charcoal, and are in turn overlain by several more stratified lenses of ash and rubified sediment. A second set of remains was identified to the northeast of Cluster 1 and 5-10 cm deeper. These were identified as Cluster 2, but appear to be a part of the same individual which became detached during the cremation event.

Plan view of the exposed ash complex, showing the large spatial extent. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Twenty radiocarbon dates were obtained from the core pyre and larger ash feature, providing a chronology for the site. Dates obtained below the core feature begin around 12 699 years before the present, with the latest coming from 9918 years before the present. Layers of ash above the core feature produced dates ranging from 9540 to 9454 years before the present, while a layer of ash on the eastern excavation wall was dated to between 9538 and 9455 years before the present. A Land Snail bead from a layer immediately above the core combustion event provided a date of between 9537 and 9441 years before the present, and is taken as evidence of this layer being covered over quickly by non-combustion sediments. Another large combustion event was indicated by a stratigraphically higher layer of ash, which produced a date of between 9452 and 9142 years before the present, i.e. less than 400 years after the core event, although this layer produced no Human remains. Above this were further layers of non-combustion deposits dating from between less than 9403 and 9031 years before the present. 

Spatial relationships of dated materials, samples, and human remains. HOR-1 excavations in profile (A) and plan (B) views showing positions of dated materials and adult cremated remains with different degrees of certainty (LH indicates 'likely human' based on size, texture, and preservation, but not morphologically diagnostic). (C) shows phytolith (green) and micromorphology (white boxes) sample positions. Thick blue line shows how the profiles correspond in each view. C1 indicates Cluster 1 and C2 indicates Cluster 2. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Phytoliths are produced by plants as a way of handling silica absorbed with water from the soil. Most plants produce phytoliths to some extent, but Monocotyledons, such as Grasses and Palms, which utilise phytoliths both as structural support and a defence against herbivores (silica phytoliths quickly wear down the teeth of animals which lack specific adaptations to deal with them), produce phytoliths which can often be used to identify the maker to genus or even species level. Phytoliths recovered from the Hora 1 pyre deposits imply that the majority of the ash was generated by the burning of wood, but that non-woody plant fibres were also present. 

Sediments and ash layers of the pyre deposit. (A) view southwest of the feature 50 cm south of Cluster 1 of the remains. In both (A) and (B) black arrows indicate the top of micromorphology sample MALAPP 834 and white arrows show the distal radius from Cluster 1 in situ. Dashed box is the profile in (C), which shows layered ash with flecks of charcoal overlying rubified sediment. Distinct root and termite disturbances are visible crossing the boundaries of the intact ash layers. The brownish (grey when dry) sediment above and below is also ash-rich but more mixed (homogenised) and darker due to a higher content of finely comminuted organic material and microcharcoal. The sediments were dampened with a mist of water prior to taking the photos and image levels were adjusted to emphasise colour differences. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

These pyre deposits comprise a series of laminated ash layers extending horizontally for more than a metre, and containing ash, charcoal, rubified sediments, and Human remains. These deposits have been penetrated by insect burrows and/or plant root tunnels in places, presumably before the ash layers became cemented. Examination of the rubified sediments suggests that these contain fragments of baked clay which probably originated from structures built on trees by termites, suggesting that deadwood was collected to build the pyre(s). Also present were carbonised fragments of the Bracket Fungus Ganoderma.

Thin section of sample 834. Sample 834 was collected from the pyre, about 1m away from the Hora 3 remains (A). One thin section was selected from the small block sample (B) with reddish disturbed sediments in the lower part, and bright ashes in the top (C). Termite galleries and shelter tubes are very common in woodland areas, especially on deadwood, which presents ready-for-use fuel and was likely preferentially selected to build the pyre (D); (E) displays the clear boundary between compact laminated ashes (lower half of photomicrograph) and mixed ashy sediment on top, which are mixed with sandy clay soil aggregates. A very coarse sand fragment (feldspar) in the lower right likely represents roof spall; (F) A closer view of wavy laminated ash topped by sandy ash; Wavy layers of intact ashes (grey) and elongate, sickle-shaped clay aggregates (orange, red), possibly resulting from termite shelter tubes on tree branches (G); The clear lower contact of the compacted ash is characterised by a sudden increase of sand in the underlying ashy sediment (H); Phosphatic ashes indicate some mineral alterations and weathering of the ashes (I); Termite channels, fortified by well-sorted sandy clay, run through the lower part of the sample and contain burned organic matter (J); Articulated ash fragment in compacted ash (K); The sediment consists of a mix of fire residues, clay aggregates, and sand (L). Flora Schilt in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

The ash deposits generally contain fewer artefacts (such as flakes from toolmaking) than non-ash deposits, probably relating to the fact that these were laid down much more rapidly. However, the Human-remains-containing core layer contains many more such objects, suggesting that they were deliberately included within the pyre, possibly for symbolic reasons.

Unifacial points and cores from square E11-a core pyre ash contexts. (B) and (F) Unmodified points; (D), (E), (G), (H), (I), and (J) broken point fragments (dashed red line shows breaks); (A), (C), (E), and (D) point showing unifacial retouch; (H) point fragment showing basal tang. Red stars indicate point areas with possible residue preservation. Justin Pargeter in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

A total of 170 Human bone fragments were recovered from the pyre area. Of these, 112 could be clearly identified as specific parts of the Human skeleton, with the remaining 18 identified as 'likely human' on the basis of their size, texture, and preservation. The majority of these bone fragments (160) were recovered within the ash feature, with 152 found within the core feature. Of the elements which could definitely be identified as Human, 97 could be assigned to a specific element, with 90 of these being long bone (i.e. arm or leg) fragments. Other fragments from the core pyre include partial left and right calcanei, an unsided patella, the lower right articular facet of a lumbar vertebra, and four phalanges. All are consistent with a single individual.

Skeletal inventory and thermal alteration colour changes. Preserved skeletal elements and changes in bone coloration in relation to temperature and fire exposure. Additional fragments not shown in the figure: an unsided patella, the lower right articular facet of a lumbar vertebra, and unidentified long bone fragments. Jessica Cerezo-Román in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Analysis of the Hora 3 skeleton suggests that this individual was a female aged between 18 and 60. The individual is presumed to be an adult on the basis that it appears to be skeletally mature, with the distal femur and radius having fused. The articular margin of the distal femoral epiphysis showed marginal lipping, which may indicate the presence of a mild degenerative disease, giving the upper age estimate. No other potential age-markers were preserved. Since it was impossible to recover DNA from the burned and fragmented remains, sex was estimated using overall small size and gracility and the vertical diameter of both preserved femoral heads. On the basis of the diameter of the femora, the individual is estimated to have been between 145 and 150 cm tall in life (about 5 feet). Based upon the maximum and minimum midshaft diameters of the right humerus and femur, Hora 3 it thought to have been less mobile than most modern Southern African hunter gatherers, and more accustomed to manual labour.

(Top) Right distal humerus with cemented/encrusted termite tubes. (Bottom) Cemented elements that include the left proximal femur, a radius shaft, a tibia shaft, and an unidentifiable long-bone shaft. Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

About 585 g of material thought to be derived from the skeleton of Hora 3 was recovered. This is notably less than is typically produced by a Human cremation, which is usually more than 1500 g. Notably, no head elements were found within the core pyre area, although a fragment of a sphenoid (the base of the skull) was found within the larger ash feature. Fragments of cranium, and in particular teeth, are usually among the most easily preserved and identified elements in cremations, and it is surprising not to have found any such fragments, given that sediment and ash removed from the site were wet sieved to 1 mm.

All of the skeletal remains show transverse, curved-transverse, and longitudinal cracks, which are typical for the burning of a fleshed corpse, but none show signs of the checking pattern fractures which are often seen when dry remains are burned. Most fragments were grey to black, with some brown, bluish-white, and white hues. Fragments from closest to the torso were typically the most blackened and charred, while more distal elements were grey or white - which indicates more exposure to flame in areas which would have been covered by less flesh. Many elements are white on their external surface, while internal surfaces are grey, which implies these elements were intact when the burning occurred. These colours suggest that the temperature to which the distal elements were exposed exceeded 500°C, while elements closer to the torso typically reached maximum temperatures lower than 500°C. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy is sensitive to low temperature heating of bone, which often does not involve recrystallisation, and therefore can provide an accurate palaeothermometer for low temperature cremations. Four white/grey fragments from Hora 3 were analysed in this way, with all producing spectral peaks indicative of heating to over 500°C.

Although the body of Hora 3 shows signs of having been manipulated after the cremation, many of the recovered fragments were recovered together, covered in ash, and in some cases cemented together. This includes a right distal humerus and right proximal radius cemented together along with long bone fragments and a possible metacarpal fragment. This appears to show that intact joints were present at the time of final disposal of the remains. Many of the bone surfaces are covered by calcium carbonate, with none of the recovered Human bones showing more than 50% exposure. Nevertheless, eight of the bones showed stone tool marks consistent with defleshing, while none showed any signs of having been scavenged by carnivores. 

Bone modifications made with stone tools. Bone surface modifications made with stone tools. (A), (B), (C), (D), and (G) are cut marks. (E) is a percussion mark. (F) is an indeterminate mark made with a sharp object. (B) to (G) show the variable bone colours and superficial calcination with carbonisation at the interior. (C) shows the minor 'skin' of calcium carbonate overlying the marks. (G) shows remaining adhering ash. (B) to (G) show two aspects of the fragment, with close-ups of the modifications in the boxed area. Jessica Thompson in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Cerezo-Román et al. reconstruct a sequence of events in which people began using the HOR-1 as a habitation site about 21 000 years ago. The earliest recorded burials at the site occurred 16 000 and 14 000 years ago, both being infants. Small ash features consistent with campfires appear around the end of the Pleistocene, with larger pyres appearing by 10 240 years before the present.

Geology of HOR-1 rock shelter.(A) Pinkish and gray walls of the rock shelter at the site location. (B) Exfoliating bedrock higher above the excavation trench. (C) Example of spheroidal exfoliation of the bedrock near the rock shelter. Flora Schilt in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Some time between 9540 and 9454, a pyre comprising at least 30 kg of deadwood and grass, with some hairy leaves from herbaceous plants, was assembled, something which would have represented a significant investment of time and effort by the local community. The body of a small, probably female, adult individual was then burned on this pyre, probably within a few days of their death. The distribution of the bones, particularly those of the arms and legs, suggests that this individual was placed on this pyre in a flexed or pugilistic position (i.e. with the knees and elbows brought in close to the torso). Cut marks on some of the bones show signs of defleshing, although the preservation of the bones and some joints suggests that the flesh of the body (or some other covering) was present at the time of burning. It is likely that the skull was removed before the burning, since neither scavengers nor Early Holocene hunter gatherers seem likely to have been able to remove all of the fragments which would have been produced by burning a skull, while leaving other elements of the skeleton in situ. The ritual removal of skulls, and other body parts, has been documented in a range of modern African populations, but never at a site of such antiquity. 

Spatial locations of femora and right tibia fragments. Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

The fire achieved was able to reach temperatures above 500°C, although this doesn't appear to have been consistent, and the lamination of the deposits suggests that the fire-makers continued to add fuel to the pyre for some time. The detachment of Cluster 2 from Cluster 1, and the greater degree of burning seen on Cluster 1, may indicate that the body was manipulated during the cremation process to detach parts of it. Knapped material appears to have been added to the pyre, either at the outset or during the process, possibly in association with other funerary objects. Multiple further fires were lit at the same site over the next few hundred years, although no further cremations appear to have occurred.

Reconstruction of the cremation ritual. Sequence of events leading to the formation of the cremation feature at HOR-1. (A) Site location at an inselberg, a natural monument. (B) A large quantity of wood was collected to construct the pyre, suggesting communal labor. (C) Cutmarks on bone show parts of the body were defleshed. (D) Human remains display black coloration and curved transverse fractures, indicating some moisture in the remains. (E) The pyre and body at Cluster 1 were actively disturbed during burning, creating Cluster 2. (F) High temperatures were maintained by attendees adding additional fuel. (G) Convergent points are uniquely associated with the cremation. (H) Bipolar reduction dominates a lithic assemblage that occurs in higher concentrations with the remains than in the rest of the ash feature. (I) The presence of carbonised Ganoderma and the remnants of termite tunnels indicates the use of deadwood as the primary fuel. (J) The absence of cranial and dental remains suggests these may have been collected and removed. (K) Multiple fires were relit atop the original pyre location within communal memory. Patrick Fahey in Cerezo-Román et al. (2026).

Evidence of cremation among African hunter-gatherer populations is extremely rare in the archaeological record, and has not previously been found south of the Sahara. The oldest previously documented example come from the Nabta Playa site in southern Egypt, where a single individual appears to have been burned between 7800 and 7300 years ago (i.e. at least 1300 years before the earliest date for the Nabta Playa stone circle), and this has been interpreted as a 'burned inhumation' rather than a true cremation, possibly caused by the accidental ignition of material placed within the grave. Burned Human remains, possibly as much as 7000 years old, have also been recovered from an ancient midden near Lake Besaka in Ethiopia, although again this does not represent an in situ pyre like that seen at Hora, and again may not represent an intentional burning. The previous oldest known intentional cremations from Africa are associated with Neolithic Elmenteitan pastoralists in Kenya, about 3300 years ago.

A open-air, pyre cremation such as that seen at Hora requires a significant investment in time and labour by the local population, which may be why the practice is so rare among hunter-gatherer populations. In an enclosed furnace, a Human corpse can be burned in about two hours, but open air cremations require considerably longer, during which time the temperature must be maintained, typically by adding more fuel. Nevertheless, such a cremation would be a notable community event, particularly if, as seems to have been the case at Hora, parts of the body were removed during the process for ritual disposal elsewhere.

While the Hora site only records a single event, which seems to have been highly unusual in nature, it adds to a growing picture of a culturally diverse tropical African hunter-gatherer population in the Early Holocene, displacing an earlier impression that these peoples were likely to have been culturally homogeneous, even over great distances and long periods of time. The people at Hora did not erect megaliths or other architectural features. Nevertheless, they appear to have utilised chosen a site of natural prominence to carry out a significant mortuary ritual, a site which appears to have been utilised repeatedly over an extended period of time (at least 16 000 years), albeit with changing rituals during that time.

Evidence for evolving social cooperation and complexity has been recorded from many ancient hunter-gatherer populations around the world, although until now this has largely been absent from Africa. The Hora Rockshelter in Northern Malawi records a population showing both a diversity of behaviour and the ability to stage large events which would have required the investment of time and effort by many individuals. This appears to have been carried over multiple generations, with repeated fires being lit, including at least one subsequent major pyre event, suggesting a communal memory in which the significance of the location was maintained over many generations.

Cerezo-Román et al. conclude that around 9500 years ago the remains of an adult female were burned on a substantial pyre at the Hora Rocksheter in Northern Malawi. This is the oldest known pyre cremation in Africa, and the oldest known adult pyre cremation in the world. The fire appears to have been one of a sequence of fires at the same location, which persisted for centuries after the cremation event, signifying the importance of the site to the population. This site demonstrates the emergence of complex funerary rights, communal projects involving large numbers of people, and the recognition of certain sites as culturally significant long before the emergence of agriculture and organised food production, challenging previous conceptions about the extent to which community co-operation occurred among ancient hunter-gatherer populations in tropical Africa.

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