Manis pentadactyla: The Chinese Pangolin confirmed to be living in Pakyong District, Sikkim.

Pangolins are solitary, nocturnal, and generally cryptic Mammals, found across Africa and Asia. They feed on Ants and Termites, and have a covering of scales, made from fused hairs, which are their main defence against predators, rolling into a ball with these forming the outer covering. There are eight recognised species of Pangolin, four in Africa and four in Asia, two of which are listed as Vulnerable under the terms of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species, three as Endangered, and three as Critically Endangered. One of these Critically Endangered species is the Chinese Pangolin, Manis pentadactyla, which is found across parts of Nepal, Bhutan, northern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, and Taiwan. In India it is known to be present in Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, and Assam, with occasional reports of its presence in Sikkim and West Bengal, although none of these have been confirmed.

In a paper published in the Journal of Threatened Taxa on 26 June 2026, Prashanti Pradhan of the Sikkim Alpine University, and the Assam Downtown University, Jampal Dorjee Bhutia, also of the Sikkim Alpine University, and Prem Kumar Chhetri and Bharat Kumar Pradhan of the Forest & Environment Department of the Government of Sikkim, document the first confirmed sighting of the Chinese Pangolin in Pakyong District, Sikkim, and provide photographic evidence to support this.

Pradhan et al.'s report is based upon a Pangolin which was found in Barapathing Village in Pakyong District on 31 March 2024. Barapathing Village is located at an altitude of between 1150 and 1700 m in an area where subtropical to temperate broad-leaved forests are being encroached upon by agricultural land and Human settlements, with anthropogenic pressures increasing due to the construction of the 717B National Highway, and associated infrastructure. 

The Pangolin was found by a local villager wandering within their backyard, and apparently lost and looking for food. The villager, who was unfamiliar with the species, attempted to drive the Pangolin away, though it was unperturbed by this, and apparently tolerant of Humans, potentially indicating that it had been living in a Human-dominated environment for some time. The Pangolin was eventually allowed to settle in a room, while the resident called the Barapathing Territorial Range Forest & Environment Department, who collected the Animal and relocated it to a subtropical forest downstream of the village.

Chinese Pangolin, Manis pentadactyla, inside the home of a villager in Barapathing, where it remained until the arrival of the rescue unit of the Barapathing Territorial Range Forest & Environment Department. Sangita Ruchal in Pradhan et al. (2026).

The rescued Animal was identified as a Chinese Pangolin, Manis pentodactyla, on the basis of its distinct morphological characteristics, such as overlapping keratinous scales, an elongated snout, and robust body form. The photographic evidence collected by Pradhan et al. constitutes evidence that this species is present in the Pakyong District of Sikkim. Local people were able to identify the Animal as a Pangolin using the Nepali word 'Saalak', but reported that they had never seen one so close to a Human habitation before.

The photographs and a description of the Animal were later sent to Vikram Aditya, the principal scientist at the Centre for Wildlife Studies in Bengaluru, Karnataka State, and a member of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Pangolin Specialist Group, who confirmed the diagnosis of this being a Chinese Pangolin.

The Chinese Pangolin after being rehabilitated into the forest. Prem Kumar Chettri in Pradhan et al. (2026).

Pangolins are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation, driven by deforestation, forest fires, and road development, across their range. Sikkim has had one of the greatest expansions of its road network of any state in India during the last decade, with a major road upgrading project close to the village of Barapathing, which is likely to have contributed to both habitat destruction and a greater rate of Human encounters for Pangolins in the area. 

Animals can sometimes survive in altered landscapes by adapting their behaviour, however, this can lead them vulnerable to additional hazards, such as increased hunting. The hunting and trafficking of Pangolins is known to be a hazard for Pangolins in Sikkim, in 2021 a group of five people was arrested trying to smuggle a dead Pangolin from Sikkim into Bhutan, and when questioned they confessed the Animal had been killed in a wildlife sactuary in Sikkim. They also hinted at there being an international wildlife trafficking network operating across the eastern Himalayan region. 

Pradhan et al. suggest that there is an urgent need for a baseline ecological study on Chinese Pangolins in Sikkim, in order to better understand the threats linked to development-related habitat fragmentation, illegal hunting and transboundary trafficking, and to enable the development of a conservation plan for the species in the state, 

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Bityle oriens: A new species of Longhorn Beetle from Mindanao Island, the Philippines.

The islands of the Philippines are considered to be one of the world's biodiversity hotspots, with a largely tropical forest ecosystem scattered across a large number of islands, leading to a very high rate of endemism (the occurrence of species with limited geographical ranges). However, much of this biodiversity is currently threatened by habitat loss as forests are converted to agricultural use. One of the groups most threatened by this are Beetles, a hyper-diverse Insect group which reach their most specious in tropical forests. Many Beetles found in the Philippines are unique to the islands, but often closely related to species found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and elsewhere in Southeast Asia.

In a paper published in the Philippine Journal of Science in February 2024, Milton Norman Medina of the Tropical Genomics Laboratory and the Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Davao Oriental State University, and the National Museum of Natural History Philippines, Amy Ponce, also of the Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Davao Oriental State University, and Jhonnel Villegas of the Faculty of Teacher Education and Center for Futures Thinking and Regenerative Development at Davao Oriental State University describe a new species of Longhorn Beetle from Davao Oriental Province on Mindanao Island, the Philippines.

The new species is placed in the genus Bityle, which contains six previously described species from Mindanao and Luzon islands in the Philippines and Sulawesi in Indonesia, and given the specific name oriens, meaning 'east', in reference to Davao Oriental Province. The species is described from one male and two female specimens collected in the Municipality of Boston, which is part of the Eastern Mindanao Biodiversity Corridor, a continuous stretch of forest ecosystems that serve as a biological sanctuary in the eastern part of Mindanao.

Habitus of Bityle oriens: (A) Holotype male, dorsal aspect; (B) paratype female, dorsal aspect; (C) frons of male holotype; (D) lateral aspect, male holotype. Medina et al. (2024).

Females of Bityle oriens are slightly larger than males, reaching 9.5 mm as opposed to 8.0 mm, but otherwise externally similar. The Beetles are black in colour, with white hairs on the head, antennae, legs, and underside, while the upper part of the body is covered by black hairs, except three bands of white hairs on the elytra.

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Thonningia alba: A new species of Parasitic Plant from Madagascar.

The Balanophoraceae is a family of obligate root-parasitic plants (which is to say, Plants which tap into the root systems of other Plants for nutrients, and carry out little-or-no photosynthesis for themselves) in the order Santalales, which also includes Sandalwoods and Mistletoes. Six species of these plants, in five genera, are known from Africa, while three are found in Madagascar, Ditepalanthus malagasicus and Thonningia malagasica (sometimes known as Langsdorfa malagasica), which are endemic to the island, and  Balanophora abbreviata, which is also found in Southeast Asia.

In a paper published in the Kew Bulletin on 25 January 2024, Leandro Jorge Telles Cardoso and João Marcelo Alvarenga Braga of the Instituto de Pesquisas Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, describe a new species of Balanophoraceaen Parasitic Plant from the Masoala Peninsula of northeastern Madagascar.

Cardoso and Braga first came across this species as specimens in the collections of the Missouri Botanical Garden and Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, which were identified as belonging to Thonningia malagasica, but which appeared more similar to Thonningia sanguinea, a species known from West and Southern Africa, but never previously recorded in Madagascar. Closer examination of this material and comparison to specimens of all known species of Thonningia and Langsdorfa led Cardoso and Braga to conclude that the material did in fact represent a new species.

The new species is named Thonningia alba, where 'alba' means 'white' in reference to the colour of the flowers. Known specimens of the species have a single branch with 1-3 clusters of inflorescences. Leaves are reduced to a few 3-5 whorls of scales around the base of these inflorescences. Inflorescences can be male or female, and reach a maximum diameter of about 3 cm in diameter. Flowers are tubular, with male flowers reaching 12-16 mm in length, while female flowers are 9-12 mm long.

Thonningia alba. Male inflorescence, Masoala Peninsula, Madagascar, 15°41'43.55"S, 49°57'50.63"E, 270 m above sealevel, September 2018. Neek Helme in Cardoso & Braga (2024).

Thonningia alba has been found growing in tropical rainforests on the Masoala Peninsula at altitudes of between 110 and 650 m above sealevel, and appears to flower between July and November, with fruit being produced in November; although the limited number of observations of the species in the wild mean that this cannot be stated with absolute confidence. It is clearly parasitic in nature, but the identity of its host Plant is unclear. 

The Masoala Peninsula is considered to be a mega-diverse region of global biodiversity importance, and is covered by a mosaic of protected areas, the largest of which is the Masoala National Park, which includes large expanses of rainforests and coastal landscapes. Specimens of Thonningia alba were collected in 1986, 1993, and 1994, and the species was observed in the wild in September 2018. All observations were within the Masoala National Park, at two locations separated by about 16 km. While the park itself is a protected area, the surrounding area is home to a growing Human population, which is at least partially dependent on collecting wild resources from the area's forests. For this reason, Cardoso and Braga recommend that the species be treated as Endangered under the terms of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species.

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Tuber itzcuinzapotl: A new species of edible Truffle from Mexico.

Truffles, Tuber spp., are Ascomycote Fungi which from ectomycorrhizal relationships with a range of forest Plants, including Pines, Oaks, Hickories, and Orchids. They are distinguished for their large, tuber-like ascomata (fruiting bodies), which are formed underground, which often have highly distinctive aromas and flavours, leading to some species being traded as high-value gourmet items.

There are currently 25 species of Truffle known from Mexico, mostly from the temperate forests of the north and the mountains of the Neovolcanic axis. However, none of these are currently traded as foodstuffs, despite Mexico a globally leading countries in terms of the number of edible wild Fungi consumed, with about 500 species, making it second only China, where about 1000 are consumed. However, recent efforts have found that the non-native Black Truffle, Tuber melanosporum, will form ectomycorrhizal relationships with native Mexican Oaks, and several species found in Mexico are considered to have potential for commercial development, including the Pecan Truffle, Tuber lyonii, which is commercially exploited in the US and Canada, and can trade for up to US$400 per kg.

In a paper published in the journal Phytotaxa on 26 January 2024, Javier Isaac de la Fuente of the Colegio de Postgraduados at Campus Montecillo, Wendy Rosales-Rosales of the Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Zongolica of the Tecnológico Nacional de México, César Romero Martínez-González of the Instituto Tecnológico de Ciudad Victoria of the Tecnológico Nacional de México, Magdelana Martínez-Reyes, also of the Colegio de Postgraduados at Campus Montecillo, Andrea Carolina Elizondo-Salas, also of the Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Zongolica of the Tecnológico Nacional de México, and Jesús Pérez-Moreno, agian of the Colegio de Postgraduados at Campus Montecillo, describe a new species of edible Truffle from the Coniferous mixed forests of eastern Mexico.

The new species is named Tuber itzcuinzapotl, where 'itzcuinzapotl' means 'Dog's Zapote' in the Nahua language (a Zapote is a type of fruit). This Truffle produces subglobose fruiting bodies with a light brown, verrucous-granular outer surface, and an gray or pale brown interior, reaching up to 28 mm by 28 mm in size, with a distinctive fruity taste and smell. It is found growing in association with Mexcan Weeping Pines, Pinus patula, in Veracruz State, Mexico.

Tuber itzcuinzapotl (Holotype). Fresh ascomata fruiting body. De la Fuente et al. (2024).

Mexico has a significant culture of wild Fungus consumption, with over 500 types of Fungi consumed by members of all ethnic groups, and in particular rural communities living close to woodland. However, almost all consumed Fungi are epigeal, i.e, found above the ground, such as Mushrooms, with very little exploitation of subterranean species occurring. This is surprising, as Mexico is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world for Oaks, and Oaks are particularly associated with Fungi producing underground fruiting bodies. 

Tuber itzcuinzapotl is known to be consumed by members of the Nahua ethnic group living in the Sierra de Zongolica region of Veracruz State, Mexico, where it is referred to as 'itzcuinzapotl' (the specific name chosen for the species). Local folklore has it that people began to consume these Fungi after observing Dogs digging them up and eating them. Knowledge of the Fungus appeared to be restricted to older women in the community. Such local knowledge of wild foodstuffs is considered to be at risk in the region as traditional cultures are eroded, leading to loss of knowledge and a reduction and homogenisation in the number of foodstuffs consumed by Humans both in Mexico and globaly.

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Cigaritis meghamalaiensis: A new species of Lycaenid Butterfly from the southern Western Ghats of India.

Lycaenid Butterflies or 'Blues' are a widespread and highly successful group of Lepidopteran Insects, noted for their blue or metallic colouring. With about 6000 known species, Lycaenids are found on all continents and comprise about 30% of all described Butterfly species. The group is particularly notable for its relationship with Ants, with the females of many species laying their eggs in or near to Ant nests, and the young of many species being able to induce the Ants to feed them while they mature within the nest. This relationship appears to have mutualistic roots, with some members of the group having larvae which are guarded by the Ants while they feed, and which produce a sugar-rich honeydew which the Ants consume. Silverlines, Cigaritis spp., are a genus of Lycaenid Butterflies found across Africa, South and Southeast Asia.

In a paper published in the journal Entomon on 31 December 2023,  Ramasamy Kamaya Naicker of  Saptur Palace and the Vanam Trust, Sujitha Prabhakaran Chandrika of the Department of Zoology at the University of Kerala, Baiju Kochunarayanan of Sreerangam, Jebine Jose of Kaduvathookil House, Manoj Kripakaran of Shyladhri, Rajkumar Chidambaram Palaniappan, also of the Vanam Trust, Vinayan Padmanabhan Nair of Nethaji Housing Colony, Kalesh Sadasivan of Greeshmam and the Travancore Nature History Society describe a new species of Cigaritis from the southern Western Ghats of India.

The new species is named Cigaritis meghamalaiensis, where 'meghamalaiensis' means 'from Meghamalai' , in reference to the region where it was discovered; the name 'Meghamalai' means 'cloud mountain', so the name also refers to the subtropical montane cloud forests where the species is found. The species was first observed at high elevations within the Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala State, and subsequently also found in the adjoining Meghamalai Mountain Range of Tamil Nadu.

Cigaritis meghamalaiensis Field images of males, females and seasonal forms. (A) Male, typical colouration; (B( female, typical colouration; (C) male upperside; (D) female upperside; (E) dry season male underside; (F) dry season female underside; (G) mating; (H) oviposition. Ramasamy Naicker in Naicker et al. (2023).

Males of Cigaritis meghamalaiensis have forewings that are black on the upper side with extensive metallic blue markings, and hindwings that are grey with blue markings. In females the forewings are grey with metallic blue markings and the hindwings are a lighter grey with blue markings. In both sexes the undersides of the wings in both sexes are a pale pinkish brown with pinkish orange markings.

Cigaritis meghamalaiensis. Early stages, larval pens, and attending Ants. (A) Freshly laid egg; (B) larvae being attended by Crematogaster Ants inside the larval pen; (C) intermediate instar larvae and its attending Ant; (D) larval pen under the bark of a shola tree opened to reveal the walls (white arrows), and two larvae inside it marked 1 and 2  (blue arrows). Kalesh Sadasivan & Jebin Jose in Naicker et al. (2023).

Butterflies were observed flying between December and June, although they were surprisingly reluctant to the wing, making them easy prey to Spiney Lizards and other predators. They were found only on the fringes of subtropical evergreen forests. Females were observed to fly around trees with populations of predatory Acrobat Ants, Crematogaster spp.. Mating was observed in April, and eggs were laid between April and December, on the bark of trees and shrubs such as Neolitsea spp. and  Clerodendrum infortunatum, always in the presence of Crematogaster wroughtonii Ants, either in dark crevices on the stems or directly in the Ants' nests.

Cigaritis meghamalaiensis, habitat and host plants. (A) Sub-tropical Evergreen forests of Meghamalais (1400m above sealevel); (B) Neolitsea cassia, a host tree; (C) typical climate inside the misty cloud forests; (D) female ovipositing inside Crematogaster nest on Clerodendrum infortunatum. Ramasamy Naicker, Kalesh Sadasivan, & Jebin Jose in Naicker et al. (2023).

Larvae were observed in 'pens' under the bark of the trees, where they were tended by Crematogaster wroughtonii Ants. These pens each contained 3-4 larvae, and appeared to be constructed specifically by the Ants, away from their own nests. This suggests that the relationship is mutual rather than parasitic, with the Ants gaining some benefit from the relationship, possibly consuming some product produced by the caterpillars. 

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Gigantopithecus blacki: Understanding the extinction of a Giant Ape.

Remains of the Giant Pongine Ape Gigantopithecus blacki are known from Early to Middle Pleistocene cave deposits from China south of the Yangtze River. It is considered to have been a key member of two successive faunal zones in the region, the Gigantopithecus–Sinomastodon and Stegodon–Ailuropoda zones, which together cover the time period from about 2 million years ago to about 330 000 years ago. Gigantopithecus blacki is estimated to have stood about 3 m tall, and to have weighed 200-300 kg, making it the largest Primate ever known, although it is known only from four mandibles and about 2000 isolated teeth. It had unusually large molars, with exceptionally thick enamel, with the first specimens coming to the attention of scientists being found in an apothecary's shop in Hong Kong as 'Dragon's teeth', with a subsequent search finding remains in several caves in the Chongzuo area and the Bubing Basin of Guangxi Province, China.

A cast of the lower jaw of Gigantopithecus blacki on display in the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, James St John/Flikr/Wikimedia Commons.

Very few of these sites have been subject to rigorous dating, making the timeline for Gigantopithecus blacki somewhat uncertain. The oldest remains attributed to the species were deposited about 2.2 million years ago at Baikong Cave, while the youngest remains date from between 420 000 and 330 000 years ago at  Hejiang Cave. Over this time, the teeth of Gigantopithecus blacki increased in size and became more complex (gained more features on the surface of the molars, which would have increased its ability to grind hard foods), which suggests its diet was changing in response to new ecological pressures. Gigantopithecus blacki is thought to have been a specialized herbivore, feeding on abrasive foods which it was able to process with its large jaws and molars, and consuming a large amount of fruit. At the time when the Baikong Cave deposits were laid down, a diverse forest ecosystem supporting a range of Primates covered much of what is now Guangxi, Guizhou, Hainan and Hubei provinces. By the time the Hejiang Cave deposits were being laid down, Gigantopithecus blacki was found only in Guangxi. The reasons why Gigantopithecus blacki underwent first a decline in range and then went extinct have been debated extensively, but not studied in detail, with most studies of the species concentrating on single sites and not incorporating behavioural and environmental evidence. 

In a paper published in the journal Nature on 10 January 2024, a team of scientists led by Yingqi Zhang and Kira Westaway of the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the School of Natural Sciences at Macquarie University, examined cave deposits from 22 sites in the Chongzuo area and the Bubing Basin that had produced and not produced remains of Gigantopithecus blacki, in order to date the deposit sequences, look for palaeoclimate proxies, and evidence for the behaviour of Gigantopithecus blacki.

Eleven of the caves examined by Zhang et al. have yielded remains attributed to Gigantopithecus blacki, while the remaining eleven have not. Six independent dating methods were used at each of these sites, in order to establish a reliable timeline for the sequences allowing comparison between sites. Finally, isotope and wear analysis of teeth was used to determine changes in the diet of Gigantopithecus blacki over time.

The location of the study sites in this research. (a)–(c) The location of Southern China, Guangxi Province and the city of Nanning (a), with the location of the Chongzuo study area marked by a large box (b) and the Bubing Basin study area marked by a smaller box (c). (b) The location of the 16 cave sites analysed in the Chongzuo study area. (c) The location of the six caves analysed in the Bubing Basin study area including both Gigantopithecus blacki-bearing and non-Gigantopithecus blacki-bearing caves from both regions. Zhang et al. (2024).

The methods enabled the development of a sequence that lasted from about 2.3 million years ago to about 49 000 years ago. This provided a timeline for the presence of Gigantopithecus blacki which lasted from 2.3 million years ago to 255 000 years ago, suggesting that in order to understand the extinction of the species, the interval 295 000 to 215 000 should be studied in greater detail. Thus Zhang et al. split the sequence into four segments, a pre-extinction phase from 2.3 million to 700 000 years ago, a transition phase from 700 000 to 295 000 years ago, an extinction window phase, from 295 000 to 215 000 years ago, and a post-extinction phase, from 215 000 years ago to the present.

Pollen analysis reveals that during the pre-extinction phase the dominant flora of the region were trees, particularly members of the Pinaceae, Fagaceae and Betulaceae (Pines, Beaches and Birches), with patches of grassland also present. During the transition phase this changed, with a greater proportion of disturbance taxa (i.e. species which colonise disturbed sites rapidly), which persisted through the extinction window phase. After the extinction window, from about 200 000 years ago onwards, the flora became dominated by Ferns and Grasses, with some trees, such as Mulberries and Podocarps, still present.

The fauna of the region in the pre-extinction phase was characterised by relatively large numbers of Gigantopithecus blackii, as well as the early Panda Ailuropoda microta, Baboon-like Monkeys of the genus Procynocephalus, the Elephants Sinomastodon and Stegodon, the Chalcothere Hesperotherium, and the Pig Hippopotamodon. During the transition and extinction window phase, the numbers of Gigantopithecus blackii dwindled, Ailuropoda microta was replaced by the more modern Ailuropoda baconi, and while Stegodon persisted, Sinomastodon was replaced by Elephas, the genus to which all modern Asian Elephants belong. 

The proportion of carbon isotopes in the teeth of Gigantopithecus blackii shifts from the pre-extinction phase into the extinction window, suggesting a change in diet. Interestingly, the carbon isotope ratio of the teeth of the Baboon-like Monkeys Procynocephalus weidenreichi, is similar to that of Gigantopithecus blackii in both phases, suggesting that it underwent a similar dietary change. However, Procynocephalus weidenreichi persisted after the extinction of Gigantopithecus blackii, and the carbon isotope ratios of its teeth underwent a much greater shift at about this time, suggesting another, larger dietary shift, which Gigantopithecus blackii was not capable of making. 

The proportion of the elements strontium, barium, and lead in the tooth enamel of Gigantopithecus blackii also changed from the pre-extinction phase into the extinction window, again suggesting a dietary shift.

An artist impression of Gigantopithecus blackii, the Giant Ape of southern China. Jose Garcia/Renaud Joannes-Boyau/Southern Cross University/Chinese Academy of Sciences.

The pollen-data suggests that in the pre-extinction phase the study area was covered by a mosaic of open woodland and grasslands, but that in the transition and extinction window phases this suffered a climate breakdown, with increasing seasonality, and a shift to a drier environment, with more shrubs and grassland, and probably a much more seasonal water-cycle, with distinct wet and dry seasons.

A decline in forest cover during this interval has been recorded across a wide area of China, Southeast Asia, and Australasia. However, the problem for Gigantopithecus blackii seems to have been not the overall decline in forests, so much as the rise in environmental variability and the associated rise in the dominance of disturbance taxa. The isotope and trace element data suggests that both Gigantopithecus blackii and Procynocephalus weidenreichi lived in closed canopy forested environments, and had a highly diverse diet, including seasonal fruits and flowers and periodic water consumption. A subtropical climate with minimal seasonal variation would have ensured a variety of foods year-round, enabling these species to rely on a mixture of forest Plants for food. Once the climate began to shift, the range of Plant foods available became much more restricted and seasonal, and fresh drinking water was probably not available year round either, causing considerable stress to the Gigantopithecus blackii population. Procynocephalus weidenreichi appears to have been able to survive this change by shifting its diet to incorporate foods from the new environment, something Gigantopithecus blackii was apparently unable to do. The microwear on the teeth of both species increases over this interval alters, probably reflecting a reduced fruit availability, and a greater reliance on more fibrous foods, which ultimately appears to have proven to poor a diet for Gigantopithecus blackii.

Zhang et al.'s study provides a timeline for the flourishing and subsequent demise of Gigantopithecus blackii, a specialist forest-dwelling Ape, reliant on a rich evergreen-deciduous forest with plenty of available water. Once the climate began to change in the area, and the faunal and floral composition of the forests began to shift, Gigantopithecus blackii began to suffer dietary stress, leading to a decline in population and eventual extinction. 

An artist impression of a group of Gigantopithecus blackii within a forest in southern China.Jose Garcia/Renaud Joannes-Boyau/Southern Cross University/Chinese Academy of Sciences.

Unlike the Baboon-like Procynocephalus weidenreichi, with which it shared its forest environment, Gigantopithecus blackii was apparently unable to adapt to a changing environment, probably because of a greater relaince on fruits, as well as a larger body-size, which would probably have made it less mobile, and more dependent on the forests maintaining a stable structure. Gigantopithecus blackii is also likely to have been entirely terrestrial, with a limited range, albeit with a willingness to travel to find water. Procynocephalus weidenreichi, on the other hand, is thought to have been more able to venture into the treetops, enabling it to reach food and water sources which would have been unavailable to Gigantopithecus blackii. Unlike Gigantopithecus blackii, which appears to have grown larger over the course of the Pleistocene, Procynocephalus weidenreichi became smaller, and therefore presumably more agile, enabling it to reach less readily available food sources, as well as requiring less food overall. This greater adaptability appears to have enabled the Monkey to survive while the larger Ape was unable.

The population of Gigantopithecus blackii appears to have been struggling by about 300 000 years ago, with both the number of inhabited caves and number of teeth per cave (which would have reflected the number of Apes) reduced. From this time onwards, populations of Gigantopithecus blackii appear smaller and more stressed, as the number of forest refugia available to them diminished. Notably, and unlike many other Pleistocene species in Asia and Australasia, the decline of Gigantopithecus blackii appears to have been unrelated to the spread of Homo sapiens, or other Hominin species.

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